User:Reedman72/sandbox

This article describes the grammar of Afrikaans, a language spoken in South Africa which originated from 17th century Dutch.

Verbs
There is no distinction for example between the infinitive and present forms of verbs, with the exception of these verbs:

In addition, verbs do not conjugate differently depending on the subject. For example,

For most verbs, the preterite (e.g. I watched) has been completely replaced by the perfect (e.g. I have watched), or in storytelling by the present tense (i.e. the use of a historical present, which is sometimes also employed in Dutch). The only common exceptions to this are the modal verbs (see the following table) and the verb wees "be" (preterite form was).

The following three full verbs also have (rarely used) preterite forms:

Modern Afrikaans also lacks a pluperfect (e.g. I had watched). Instead, the pluperfect, like the preterite, is expressed using the perfect.

The perfect is constructed with the auxiliary verb het + past participle, which—except for the verb hê (past participle gehad), separable verbs such as reghelp (past participle reggehelp) and verbs with beginnings such as ver- and ont- (verkoop, ontmoet are both infinitive and past participle)—is formed regularly by adding the prefix ge- to the verb's infinitive/present form. For example,


 * Ek breek – I break
 * Ek het dit gebreek – I broke it, I have broken it, I had broken it

An object is necessary in this case, otherwise it implies that the subject (ek) is broken.

The future tense is in turn indicated using the auxiliary sal + infinitive. For example,


 * Ek sal kom – I will come (or literally I shall come)

The conditional is indicated by the preterite form sou + infinitive. For example,


 * Ek sou kom – I would come (literally I should come)

Like other Germanic languages, Afrikaans also has an analytic passive voice that is formed in the present tense by using the auxiliary verb word (to become) + past participle, and, in the past tense, by using the auxiliary is + past participle. For example,


 * Dit word gemaak – It is being made
 * Dit is (Dis) gemaak – It is made, It was made, It has been made (so it already exists)

Formal written Afrikaans also admits the construction of was gemaak to indicate passive voice in the pluperfect, which in this case corresponds to had been made. The meaning of the sentence can change based on which auxiliary verb is used (is/was), e.g. is gemaak implies that something has been made and is still in existence today, whereas was gemaak implies that something had been made, but was destroyed or lost.

Nouns
Nouns in Afrikaans have no inflectional case system, and do not have grammatical gender. However, there is a distinction between the singular and plural forms of nouns. The most common plural marker is the suffix -e, but several common nouns form their plural instead by adding a final -s. A number of common nouns have irregular plurals:

No grammatical case distinction exists for nouns, adjectives and articles.

Consonants
Marshallese has a large consonant inventory, and each consonant has some type of secondary articulation (palatalization, velarization, or rounding). The palatalized consonants are regarded as "light", and the velarized and rounded consonants are regarded as "heavy", with the rounded consonants being both velarized and labialized. (This contrast is similar to that between "slender" and "broad" consonants in Goidelic languages, or between "soft" and "hard" consonants in Russian.) The "light" consonants are considered more relaxed articulations.

The following are the consonant phonemes of Marshallese:

Marshallese has no voicing contrast in consonants. However, stops may be allophonically partially voiced when they are between vowels and not geminated. Final consonants are often unreleased.

Glides vanish in many environments, with surrounding vowels assimilating their backness and roundedness. That is motivated by the limited surface distribution of these phonemes as well as other evidence that backness and roundedness are not specified phonemically for Marshallese vowels. In fact, the consonant never surfaces phonetically but is used to explain the preceding phenomenon. ( and may surface phonetically only in word-initial and word-final positions and, even then, not consistently. )

The consonant may be phonetically realized as, , , , or  (or any of their voiced variants , , , , or ), in free variation. Word-internally it usually assumes a voiced fricative articulation as (or ) but not when geminated. is used to adapt foreign sibilants into Marshallese.

Marshallese has no distinct phoneme.

The dorsal consonants are usually velar but with the tongue a little farther back, making them somewhere between velar and uvular in articulation. All dorsal phonemes are "heavy" (velarized or rounded), and none are "light" (palatalized). As stated before, the palatal consonant articulations, , and  are treated as allophones of the palatalized coronal obstruent , even though palatal consonants are physically dorsal.

and are usually articulated as retroflex nasals  and.

Consonants, and  are all coronal consonants and full trills. is similar to Spanish rr with a trill position on the alveolar ridge, but is a palatalized dental trill, articulated further forward behind the front teeth. The Marshallese–English Dictionary (MED) and Willson (2003) describe the rhotic consonants as "retroflex", but are not clear how this relates to their dental or alveolar trill positions. (See retroflex trill.)

The heavy lateral consonants and  are dark l like in English feel, articulated  and  respectively.

The velarized consonants (and, by extension, the rounded consonants) may be velarized or pharyngealized like the emphatic consonants in Arabic or Mizrahi Hebrew.

Vowels
Marshallese has a vertical vowel system of just four vowel phonemes, each with several allophones depending on the surrounding consonants.

MED (1976), Choi (1992) and Willson (2003) notate some Marshallese vowels differently. Choi (1992) observes only three vowel phonemes but theorizes that there may be a historical process of reduction from four to three. This article uses the notation of the MED.

Superficially, 12 Marshallese vowel allophones appear in minimal pairs, a common test for phonemicity. For example, (mā, 'breadfruit'),  (ma, 'but'), and  (mo̧, 'taboo') are separate Marshallese words. However, the uneven distribution of glide phonemes suggests that they underlyingly end with the glides (thus, , ). When glides are taken into account, it emerges that there are only 4 vowel phonemes.

When a vowel phoneme appears between consonants with different secondary articulations, the vowel surfaces as a smooth transition from one vowel allophone to the other. For example, jok 'shy', phonemically, is realized phonetically as. It follows that there are 24 possible diphthongs in Marshallese:

Some syllables appear to contain long vowels: naaj 'future'. They are thought to contain an underlying glide (, or ), which is not present phonetically. For instance, the underlying form of naaj is. Although the medial glide is not realized phonetically, it affects vowel quality; in a word like, the vowel smoothly transitions from to  and then back to , as.

Adjectives
Adjectives may, however, be inflected when they precede a noun. As a general rule, polysyllabic adjectives are normally inflected when used as attributive adjectives. Monosyllabic attributive adjectives may or may not be inflected though, depending mostly on a set of rather complex phonological rules. When an adjective is inflected, it usually takes the ending -e and a series of morphological changes may result. For example, the final t following an sound, which disappears in uninflected adjectives like reg (cf. Dutch recht), is restored when the adjective is inflected (regte). A similar phenomenon applies to the apocope of t after. For example, the adjective vas becomes vaste when inflected. Conversely, adjectives ending in -d (pronounced ) or -g (pronounced ) following a long vowel or diphthong, lose the -d and -g when inflected. For example, look at the inflected form of:

In some exceptional cases, after the syncope of the intervocalic consonant, there is also an additional apocope of the inflection marker. For example,


 * oud (old) – ou (when it precedes a noun)

Broadly speaking, the same morphological changes that apply to inflected adjectives also apply in the formation of the plural of nouns. For example, the plural of vraag (question) is vrae (questions).

Pronouns
Remnants of the case distinction remain in the pronoun system. For example,

*Note that hullie and zullie are used instead of zij (subject, third person plural) in several dialects of Dutch.

No case distinction is made for ons, julle, and hulle. There is often no distinction between object pronouns and possessive pronouns when used before nouns. For example,


 * my – my, me
 * ons – our (the alternative form onse is now considered archaic)

An exception to the previous rule is the 3rd person singular, where Afrikaans clearly distinguishes between hom (him) and sy (his). Likewise, the neuter pronoun dit (it, subject or object) is distinguished from the possessive sy (its). For 3rd person plural pronouns, whereas hulle can also mean their, a variant hul is frequently used to mean "their" so as to differentiate between their and they/them. Similarly, julle when meaning your has a possessive variant jul (citation needed).

Word order
Afrikaans has a strict word order, described in many South African text books using the so-called "STOMPI rule". The name of the rule indicates the order in which the parts of a sentence should appear.

Word order in Afrikaans follows broadly the same rules as in Dutch: in main clauses, the finite verb appears in "second position" (V2 word order), while subordinate clauses (e.g. content clauses and relative clauses) have subject–object–verb order, with the verb at (or near) the end of the clause.

As in Dutch and German, infinitives and past participles appear in final position in main clauses, split from the corresponding auxiliary verb. For example,


 * Afrikaans: Hy het 'n huis gekoop.
 * Dutch: Hij heeft een huis gekocht.
 * English: He bought/has bought a house.

Relative clauses usually begin with the pronoun "wat", used both for personal and non-personal antecedents. For example,


 * Afrikaans: Die man wat hier gebly het was 'n Amerikaner.
 * Dutch: De man die hier bleef was een Amerikaan.
 * English: The man who stayed here was an American.

Alternatively, a relative clause may begin with a preposition + "wie" when referring to a personal antecedent, or an agglutination between "waar" and a preposition when referring to a non-personal antecedent.

Double negative
A particular feature of Afrikaans is its use of the double negative. For example,


 * Afrikaans: Hy kan nie Afrikaans praat nie. (lit. He can not Afrikaans speak not.)
 * Dutch: Hij kan geen Afrikaans spreken.
 * English: He cannot speak Afrikaans.

Both French and San origins have been suggested for double negation in Afrikaans. While double negation is still found in Low Franconian dialects in West-Flanders and in some "isolated" villages in the centre of the Netherlands (i.e. Garderen), it takes a different form, which is not found in Afrikaans. The following is an example:


 * Compare with "Ek wil nie dit doen nie", which changes the meaning to "I do not want to do this specific thing." Whereas "Ek wil dit nie doen nie" emphasises the unwillingness to act, "Ek wil nie dit doen nie" emphasises the unwillingness to do the specified action.

The -ne was the Old Franconian way to negate but it has been suggested that since -ne became highly non-voiced, nie or niet was needed to complement the -ne. With time the -ne disappeared in most Low Franconian Dutch dialects.

The double negative construction has been fully integrated into standard Afrikaans and its proper use follows a set of fairly complex rules as the examples below show:

The word het in Dutch does not correspond to het in Afrikaans. The het in Dutch means it in English. The Dutch word that corresponds to het in Afrikaans (in these cases) is heb.

Note that in these cases, most Dutch speakers would say instead:

A notable exception to this is the use of the negating grammar form that coincides with negating the English present participle. In this case there is only a single negation.

Certain words in Afrikaans arise due to grammar. For example, moet nie, which literally means "must not", usually becomes moenie; although one does not have to write or say it like this, virtually all Afrikaans speakers will change the two words to moenie in the same way as do not shifts to don't in English.