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History of Deaf Education in Japan
Prior to Fukuzawa Yukichi and Yamao Yōzō's research of Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing education in Europe in 1862, the Japanese government had no interest or investment in the education of their Deaf population. Following their research, and coinciding with values developed during the Meiji Restoration, Furukawa Tashiro opened the first public school for the Deaf and HH. In 1878, the Kyoto Blind-Mute Institute was founded. Furukawa was the primary instructor at this school, primarily using finger spelling influenced by European research. The Kyoto Blind-Mute Institute prompted the emergence and development of JSL where previously only home signs existed.

Following the Kyoto Institute, the Tokyo School for the Deaf was founded in 1880. Teaching methods became a source of conflict during this time due to the Milan Conference of 1880, banning the use of sign language instruction or Deaf teachers in public schools. In 1983, the Osaka Association of the Hearing Impaired began advocating for the implementation of JSL curriculum in deaf schools. To combat Japan's compliance with the Milan Conference, they advocated for JSL to be taught as a subject rather than using it as the primary form of instruction. This inspired a similar campaign led by the Japanese Federation of the Deaf that targeted the persuasion of the Ministry of Education. In 1991, a group of typical hearing members of the Ministry of Education conducted a study on JSL curriculum being implemented in a school of deaf and hearing students. They released a report in 1993 concluding that in regular primary and junior high schools, JSL curriculum was "a hindrance." Their reasoning was that JSL was not a fully developed language with limited vocabulary that does not correspond with spoken or written Japanese, creating obstacles for students who would be learning both forms of the language. The Ministry of Education promoted instead the use of oral teaching methods or Signed Japanese.

Deaf Education in Japan Today
Today, there are 110 public schools for Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing students in Japan. Public schools continue to operate under the Ministry of Education, now known today at the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT). Although there is no recorded data with specific numbers, about half of the Deaf/HH population of primary school students in Japan are enrolled in regular or "fully inclusive" schools. The Ministry of Education has provided the population of Deaf/HH students in the other various types of schools as of 2014. "Partially inclusive" schools in Japan have resource rooms that Deaf/HH students attend for 2 hours per week with D/HH instructors. The population of Deaf/HH students in resource room schools as of 2014 is 1,796 in primary school and 385 in junior high. Another form of "partially inclusive" schools are those with separate classes for Deaf/HH students in Japanese and math subjects while the rest are taught inclusively with hearing students. The population of Deaf/HH students in these schools is 1,029 in primary school and 410 in junior high. "Special schools," or schools designated for Deaf students only have enrollment of 3,093 in primary school and 1,882 junior high.

Teaching Methods of Deaf Education in Japan
As of the year 2000, teaching methods in Deaf Public schools use a "total communication" approach where educators use a mix of cued speech, finger spelling, and Signed Japanese. The only public school in Japan that has a program using JSL is the Sapporo School for the Deaf. Sapporo offers instruction to preschool and elementary level students. The program began in 2007 with only 2 instructors implementing JSL curriculum while others use an oral approach to teaching. While the 2 JSL instructors are fluent, none of the instructors at Sapporo are Deaf or Hard-of-Hearing. This separation of teaching methods has created controversy within the school due to a divide and inconsistency of language between students in each program. In 2008, Meisei Gakuen, a private school for Deaf students in Tokyo, opened as the only school with JSL as its primary form of instruction. This is the only private school available to Deaf students in Japan with a 3:12 student-to-teacher ratio, and 2 D/HH instructors. Meisei Gakuen offers instruction for students from preschool through high school levels. The school has a "bilingual approach" to teaching, using JSL and written Japanese. The school emphasizes the importance of learning JSL as a natural first language for Deaf children under the belief that JSL is best suited for Deaf children's life outside of school as a comfortable and fully accessible language they can use.

Higher Education
There is little to no information on colleges or universities in Japan designed specifically for Deaf/HH students seeking higher education. A research survey was conducted in 2004 by Mayumi Shirasawa at the Research Center on Higher Education for the Hearing and Visually Impaired that details the population of Deaf/HH students in higher education. According to this survey, about 650 students were enrolled in about 30% of the universities or junior colleges in Japan. There is a small, scattered population of students within each school. According to the survey 185 schools having no more than 3 Deaf/HH students and only 6 having a population of 10 or more. About 90% of students who took this survey were pursuing their undergrad while only about 30 students were attending graduate school.

Of these 287 schools that Deaf/HH students attend, about 50% have accommodations in the form of note-takers. In 89 of these schools, the note-takers were paid and in 71, the note-takers were trained on assistance with Deaf/HH people. This accommodation, however, is said to be less applicable to graduate students considering the research and discussion-based format of the courses. Individual support is also often offered in the form of resource rooms.

University of Tsukuba
The University of Tsukuba has 2 primary campuses in the Tokyo area. As a university focused on basic and applied sciences, it offers resources for Deaf/HH students based on organizations and offices whose expertise is in disability research. The Institute of Disability Sciences within the University of Tsukuba is a collective of researches that primarily accommodate for those with physical disabilities. The Office for Students with Disabilities has Senmonbukai, a faculty-led organization, approved by the university's Health Center. These faculty are also researchers of hearing, visual and physical disabilities who provide tutors, work in resource rooms, and assessments of individual student accommodations. The University also has what they call a "Laboratory School" on campus: The Special Needs Education School for the Deaf. There is little information on the University's website regarding the enrollment, services and teaching methods at this school versus the main campus.

Employment
There is little statistical information available about the employment rates of Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing people in Japan. However, the employment rates of physically disabled persons in Japan, under which Deaf/HH people are categorized, is low. According to Japan's Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, only 488,000 physically disabled persons were employed as of 2008. This makes up only 6.88% of the total disabled population. In a 2009 survey of 1,344 physically disabled people ages 15-64 in Japan, only 43% were employed.

Types of jobs for D/HH in Japan
White-collar jobs are historically inaccessible for D/HH people in Japan to obtain. Factories, trade jobs, beauticians and forms of self-employment such as seam-stressing or tailoring are more common. The Japanese Federation of the Deaf (JFD) specifically notes JSL interpreter jobs are also common, however, it is often under poor conditions. In a 2007 survey, only 20% of high school graduates were employed in "welfare-oriented" jobs, where staff members and instructors assist disabled employees. These positions are often paid below the minimum wage. Many are also employed in "window-seat" jobs, where disabled employees are given a job with little to no tasks.

Legislation and efforts helping employment for D/HH
In 1960, Japan's government implemented the Disabled Persons Employment Promotion Act that established a quota system. As of 2009, for companies with 56 or more employees to have 1.8% of their staff be disabled persons. If companies do not comply with this quota, they are charged a levy. They are also given a grant if they comply with the quota and provide an accessible work environment, which is not otherwise required. In 1989 the Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare began offering certification exams for JSL interpreters, following after the JFD. While certifications are now more commonly required to become an interpreter, the certification does not guarantee employment.