User:Rfassbind/sandbox

NPAR and other links

 * http://www.ipa.nw.ru/PAGE/DEPFUND/LSBSS/EMP/2014/emp_2014/parcur14d.pdf
 * http://www.minorplanet.info/PHP/lcdbsummaryquery.php
 * http://www.minorplanet.info/datazips/LCDB_readme.txt
 * LCDB 1689 Floris-Jan
 * WP:AADD
 * 1692 Subbotina, 1692 Subbotina
 * http://www.astrohaven.com/content/view/5/16/

Solar System—Farthest regions


The point at which the Solar System ends can be defined by two by two separate forces—the solar wind and the Sun's gravity:
 * The limit of the Suns's solar winds and its embedded magnetic field: This is the heliosphere, the bubble-like region of space dominated by the stream of charged particles and magnetic field of the solar wind. The outer boundary of the heliosphere is considered the beginning of the interstellar medium. The radius of the Heliosphere is roughly 100 AU, or a hundred times the Earths's distance from the Sun.


 * The limit of the Sun's gravitational influence: The Sun's Hill sphere is the effective range of its gravitational dominance, its sphere of influence. This solar gravitational sphere extends much further than the solar wind's heliosphere. It is thought to extend up to a thousand times farther and encompasses the theorized Oort cloud, with the inner cloud at 2,000 to 20,000 AU and the outer Oort cloud reaching out up to 100,000 AU, or a thousand times further than the heliosphere.

The Sun's sphere of influence depends on which of its property is considered to define the outer boundary of the Solar System.

Tunguska event (revision summary)
The Tunguska event was a large explosion of a meteor near the Stony Tunguska River in what is now Krasnoyarsk Krai, a sparsely populated region of the Eastern Siberian Taiga, Russia. The event occured in the morning of June 30, 1908 (N.S.).

It flattened 2000 sqkm of forest and caused no known casualties.

It is classified as an impact event, even though no impact crater has been found and the meteor is believed to have burst in mid-air at an altitude of 5 to 10 km rather than hit the surface of the Earth.

Different studies have yielded varying estimates of the superbolide's size, on the order of 60 to 190 m, depending on whether the meteor was a comet or a denser asteroid. It is the largest impact event on Earth in recorded history.

Since the 1908 event, there have been an estimated 1,000 scholarly papers (mainly in Russian) published on the Tunguska explosion. Many scientists have participated in Tunguska studies: the best known are Leonid Kulik, Yevgeny Krinov, Kirill Florensky, Nikolai Vladimirovich Vasiliev, and Wilhelm Fast. In 2013, a team of researchers led by Victor Kvasnytsya of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine published analysis results of micro-samples from a peat bog near the center of the affected area showing fragments that may be of meteoritic origin.

Estimates of the energy of the air burst range from 30 megatons of TNT (130 PJ) to 10 and 15 MtonTNT, depending on the exact height of burst estimated when the scaling-laws from the effects of nuclear weapons are employed. While more modern supercomputer calculations that include the effect of the object's momentum estimate that the airburst had an energy range from 3 to 5 megatons of TNT (13 to 21 PJ), and that simply more of this energy was focused downward than would be the case from a nuclear explosion.

Using the 15 megaton nuclear explosion derived estimate is an energy about 1,000 times greater than that of the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima, Japan; roughly equal to that of the United States' Castle Bravo ground-based thermonuclear test detonation on March 1, 1954; and about two-fifths that of the Soviet Union's later Tsar Bomba (the largest nuclear weapon ever detonated).

It is estimated that the Tunguska explosion knocked down some 80 million trees over an area of 2150 km2, and that the shock wave from the blast would have measured 5.0 on the Richter scale. An explosion of this magnitude would be capable of destroying a large metropolitan area, but due to the remoteness of the location, no fatalities were documented. This event has helped to spark discussion of asteroid impact avoidance.

"Missing" elements

 * meteor - superbolide/detonating fireball (terms)
 * Expedition
 * Eyewitness/contemporary summary, what has been observed. Nearby: light, sound, shock wave. From afar: earth quakes, atmospheric changes.
 * History and current status of scientific debate: "comet vs asteroid"
 * Speculation, probabilistics, NEOs

LAST
The Tunguska event was a large explosion, caused by a meteor, which occurred near the Stony Tunguska River in what is now Krasnoyarsk Krai, Russia, in the morning of June 30, 1908 (N.S.). The explosion over the sparsely populated Eastern Siberian Taiga flattened 2000 sqkm of forest and caused no known casualties. It is classified as an impact event, even though no impact crater has been found and the meteor is believed to have burst in mid-air at an altitude of 5 to 10 km rather than hit the surface of the Earth. Different studies have yielded varying estimates of the superbolide's size, on the order of 60 to 190 m, depending on whether the meteor was a comet or a denser asteroid. It is the largest impact event on Earth in recorded history.

Since the 1908 event, there have been an estimated 1,000 scholarly papers (mainly in Russian) published on the Tunguska explosion. Many scientists have participated in Tunguska studies: the best known are Leonid Kulik, Yevgeny Krinov, Kirill Florensky, Nikolai Vladimirovich Vasiliev, and Wilhelm Fast. In 2013, a team of researchers led by Victor Kvasnytsya of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine published analysis results of micro-samples from a peat bog near the center of the affected area showing fragments that may be of meteoritic origin.

Estimates of the energy of the air burst range from 30 megatons of TNT (130 PJ) to 10 and 15 MtonTNT, depending on the exact height of burst estimated when the scaling-laws from the effects of nuclear weapons are employed. While more modern supercomputer calculations that include the effect of the object's momentum estimate that the airburst had an energy range from 3 to 5 megatons of TNT (13 to 21 PJ), and that simply more of this energy was focused downward than would be the case from a nuclear explosion.

Using the 15 megaton nuclear explosion derived estimate is an energy about 1,000 times greater than that of the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima, Japan; roughly equal to that of the United States' Castle Bravo ground-based thermonuclear test detonation on March 1, 1954; and about two-fifths that of the Soviet Union's later Tsar Bomba (the largest nuclear weapon ever detonated).

It is estimated that the Tunguska explosion knocked down some 80 million trees over an area of 2150 km2, and that the shock wave from the blast would have measured 5.0 on the Richter scale. An explosion of this magnitude would be capable of destroying a large metropolitan area, but due to the remoteness of the location, no fatalities were documented. This event has helped to spark discussion of asteroid impact avoidance.

Oceanic divisions
Though generally described as several separate oceans, these waters comprise one global, interconnected body of salt water sometimes referred to as the World Ocean or global ocean. " This concept of a continuous body of water with relatively free interchange among its parts is of fundamental importance to oceanography.

The major oceanic divisions – listed below in descending order of area and volume – are defined in part by the continents, various archipelagos, and other criteria.

NB: Volume, area, and average depth figures include NOAA ETOPO1 figures for marginal South China Sea.

Oceans are fringed by smaller, adjoining bodies of water such as seas, gulfs, bays, bights, and straits.

Astronomical object (lead)


(test) Astronomical objects or celestial objects are naturally occurring physical entities, associations or structures that current science has demonstrated to exist in the observable universe. The term astronomical object is sometimes used interchangeably with astronomical body. Typically, an astronomical (celestial) body refers to a single, cohesive structure that is bound together by gravity (and sometimes by electromagnetism). Examples include the asteroids, moons, planets and the stars. Astronomical objects are gravitationally bound structures that are associated with a position in space, but may consist of multiple independent astronomical bodies or objects. These objects range from single planets to star clusters, nebulae or entire galaxies. A comet may be described as a body, in reference to the frozen nucleus of ice and dust, or as an object, when describing the nucleus with its diffuse coma and tail.

The universe can be viewed as having a hierarchical structure. At the largest scales, the fundamental component of assembly is the galaxy, which are assembled out of dwarf galaxies. The galaxies are organized into groups and clusters, often within larger superclusters, that are strung along great filaments between nearly empty voids, forming a web that spans the observable universe. Galaxies and dwarf galaxies have a variety of morphologies, with the shapes determined by their formation and evolutionary histories, including interaction with other galaxies. Depending on the category, a galaxy may have one or more distinct features, such as spiral arms, a halo and a nucleus. At the core, most galaxies have a supermassive black hole, which may result in an active galactic nucleus. Galaxies can also have satellites in the form of dwarf galaxies and globular clusters.



The constituents of a galaxy are formed out of gaseous matter that assembles through gravitational self-attraction in a hierarchical manner. At this level, the resulting fundamental components are the stars, which are typically assembled in clusters from the various condensing nebulae. The great variety of stellar forms are determined almost entirely by the mass, composition and evolutionary state of these stars. Stars may be found in multi-star systems that orbit about each other in a hierarchical organization. A planetary system and various minor objects such as asteroids, comets and debris, can form in a hierarchical process of accretion from the protoplanetary disks that surrounds newly formed stars.

The various distinctive types of stars are shown by the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram (H–R diagram)—a plot of absolute stellar luminosity versus surface temperature. Each star follows an evolutionary track across this diagram. If this track takes the star through a region containing an intrinsic variable type, then its physical properties can cause it to become a variable star. An example of this is the instability strip, a region of the H-R diagram that includes Delta Scuti, RR Lyrae and Cepheid variables. Depending on the initial mass of the star and the presence or absence of a companion, a star may spend the last part of its life as a compact object; either a white dwarf, neutron star, or black hole.

Gallery with bg
Images are representative (made by hand), not simulated.

List of minor planets visited by spacecraft
Since the 1990s, a total of 13 minor planets – currently all of them are asteroids and dwarf planets – have been visited by space probes. Note that moons (not directly orbiting the Sun), comets and planets are not minor planets and thus are not included in the table below.

In addition to the listed objects, two asteroids have been imaged by spacecraft at distances too large to resolve features (over 100,000 km), and are hence not considered as "visited". Asteroid 132524 APL was imaged by New Horizons in 2006 at a distance of 101,867 km, and 2685 Masursky by Cassini in 2000 at a distance of 1,600,000 km. The Hubble Space Telescope, a spacecraft in Earth orbit, has imaged several large asteroids, including 2 Pallas and 3 Juno.

List of comets visited by spacecraft
alternative layout for List of minor planets and comets visited by spacecraft, sectionList of comets visited by spacecraft

Primary mirrors


The primary mirrors of the ESO 8-m class Very Large Telescopes are actively supported, thin Zerodur menisci, 8-.2-m diameter. The mirror blanks are produced by SCHOTT; the optical figuring, manufacturing and assembling of interfaces and auxiliary equipment are done by REOSC. Three mirror blanks have already been delivered by SCHOTT to REOSC. In November 1995 the project met a critical and very successful milestone, with the completion and testing of the first finished VLT primary mirror at REOSC. Specifications, manufacturing and above all testing methodology will be addressed, and the final results will be detailed. Optical performance at telescope level will be assessed as well.

The 8.2-m Zerodur primary mirrors (figure 1) of the ESO Very Large Telescope are 175 mm thick and their shape is actively controlled (active optics) by means of 150 axial force actuators,the necessary active corrections being obtained from wavefront sensors located off-axis on the image surface. The 23-tons mirror blanks (figure 2) are procured from SCHOTT Glaswerke and the optical figuring from REOSC (subsidiary of Groupe SFIM), together with the interfaces with the mirror cell and auxiliary equipment such as transport containers. REOSC responsibility starts at the delivery of the mirror blanks at SCHOTT premises and ends at the delivery of the finished mirrors ex works. Dedicated facilities were built by the two companies to execute their respective contracts.

Procurement of the mirror blanks started in 1988with the signature of the SCHOTT contract. The first mirror blank was delivered to REOSC in July 1993, the second in November 1994 and the third one in September 1995. The delivery of the last mirror blank is scheduled for September 1996.

The contract with REOSC for the optical figuring was formalized in 1989. Polishing of two mirrors has been completed;the first one was verified in October-November 1995 and the second is undergoing final tests at the time of redaction of this article.After active correction these two first mirrors are diffraction-limited at Ha wavelength.

The successful production of these mirrors represents a major breakthrough not only in terms of manufacturing processes but also in terms of metrology. Indeed the accurate and reliablemeasurement of a thin, flexible 50m2 optical surface represents a serious challenge.

After reviewing the specifications of the primary mirrors, manufacturing and testing plans will be presented andthe results obtained with three blanks and two finished mirrors will be detailed.




 * The VLT primary mirrors
 * Performance of the VLT Mirror Coating Unit (PDF)
 * YT-Recoating a Giant VLT Mirror (ESO cast)]

Solar energy table
Based on this version, as June, 10 in article Solar energy

Hydroelectricity producers
[http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/KeyWorld2014.pdf IEA- Key World Energy Statistics 2014, p.19 Remarks: % of Country hydro (top-ten in total producers) domestic electricity generation. Note: only top ten producers are considered for %-generation of domestic electricity. IEA could have (should have) merged the two data sets into one table (it's rather misleading otherwise without explicit note. Paraguay, Costa Rica, Austria and Switzerland would definitely rank in the %-chart).

History of German feed-in tariffs
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE FEED-IN TARIFF (FIT) FOR SMALL ROOFTOP SYSTEMS (< 10KW)

Renewable energy in Germany
 Renewables as a percentage of primary energy consumption

US PV system prices
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PV installation chart
Price of PV-Installation in €/Wp

Standard Bar-Char country Growth
Solar power in Canada

Solar power in the United States

Solar power in Australia

Solar power in the People's Republic of China

BIPV
BIPV-keynote-ICBEST.pdf nd-BIPV-WS_CHAMBERY_AIT-MR_16092014.pdf

Energy Payback Time
Executive Summary Energy Payback Time

Net energy gain

last 5 years from around 16 g/Wp to 6 g/Wp due to increased efficiencies and thinner wafers.
 * Material usage for silicon cells has been reduced significantly during the

locations in Southern Europe; thus the net clean electricity production of a solar module is 95 %.
 * The Energy Payback Time for Si PV modules is about one year for

geographical location: PV systems in Northern Europe need around 2.5 years to balance the inherent energy, while PV systems in the South equal their energy input after 1.5 years and lesss.
 * The Energy Payback Time of PV systems is dependent on the

[About PV-Ribbon Cells]

PAGE Net energy gain note: the term redirects to this section Energy_payback_time#Sustainables
 * The Energy Payback Time for CPV-Systems in Southern Europe is less than 1 year.

Vertical bar graph
Module:Chart is a Lua module that may be used to create several different types of vertical bar graphs.

Line charts
The template Line chart implements line charts, such as:

Euler–Discoveries

 * Leonhard Euler Telescope
 * ESO La Silla 1.2m Leonhard Euler Telescope
 * Southern Sky extrasolar Planet search Programme
 * The CORALIE survey for southern extrasolar planets
 * www.exoplanets.ch

GJ3021

 * A Planetary Companion around GJ 3021
 * Announcement
 * Compare to GJ 3021 b
 * CORALIE spectrograph
 * http://exoplanet.eu/

Price
Price of PV-Installation in €/kWp

[prices history] [[]http://www.photovoltaik-guide.de/pv-preisindex Preisindex]

Solar Price Installation



 * EIPA Factsheet PDF The Energy Pay Back Time, March 2011
 * PV-FAQs What is the energy payback for PV? U.S. Department of Energy - The National Renewable Energy Laboratory, January 2004

Thin film
aktuelle-fakten-zur-photovoltaik-in-deutschland.pdf, p.34

Solar energy in the European Union
source

Energy Payback Time

test  w/index.php?title=European_Space_Agency&action=edit&oldid=620039758  

Iceland
Solar power in Iceland is almost non-existant. This is not only because of Iceland's high latitude, but mainly because there are other renewable energy sources, such as geothermal and hydro power that provide almost 100 percent of the country's electricity needs. Due to the abundant and inexpensive renewable energy, Iceland plays an increasingly important role in the silicon industry, as a world leader in the production of metallurgical grade "green silicon" with several production plants being under construction.

Lab cells
Approx- estimated figures to be amended In 2013, record lab cell efficiency was highest for crystalline silicon. However, multi-silicon is followed closely by Cadmium Telluride and Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells
 * 1) 25.0% – mono-Si cell
 * 2) 20.4% – mulit-Si cell
 * 3) 19.8% – CIGS cell
 * 4) 19.6% – CdTe cell

Coal
Original Table in article Coal

Storage Batteries
Source Citi Research, DarwinismII, p.21 20. Comparison of major storage device technologies: Lithium-ion batteries offer high voltages and storage densities

Comparing capacity to other technologies
For comparison, the largest power stations by technology are:


 * Ivanpah Solar Power Facility using concentrated solar thermal technology, has an installed capacity of 392 MW. The largest nuclear power station is rated more than 8,200 MW. The largest power plant is Three Gorges Dam hydropower station with 22,500 MW installed capacity.

Growth PV+CSP barcheart

 * Test to confirm functionallity