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'''History of the Jews in Krakow Pre-1939 '''

The first recorded history of Jews in Krakow, Poland dates back to the 13th century. The Jews arrived in Krakow during the late 13th century among German immigrants traveling on a commercial route to Prague. The main center for Jewish settlement became Kazimierz, located on the outskirts of Krakow, and founded in 1335 by King Casmir the Great. Records indicate a mikveh, bathhouse and cemetery had been created by the 1350s. Jews began to own land and homes in their quarter and in neighboring quarters of the city in 1312. Subsequently, Jewish ownership was resented and protests began in 1396 against Jewish activities in Krakow. A municipal council requested in 1392 that Jews should only be allowed to sell their homes to non-Jews. In 1364, the Krakow Academy was established, with the main building located on the Jewish street known as Judengasse.

'''Brief Overview of the 15th-19th Century: '''

The 15th century was heavily characterized by disagreements amongst the Jews and the other residents in Krakow. One disagreement began over the construction of a public university building in an already overcrowded Jewish district. University students frequently attacked the Jewish residents and forced Jewish bankers to give low-interest loans to them. Additionally, in 1407, construction by the Jews began on the Alte Schul, the oldest medieval synagogue preserved in Poland. Although, not coincidentally, mob attacks broke out against the Jews in 1407 and 1423. By 1495, Jews were expelled from Krakow to Kazimierz, by order of the King.

During the 15th and 16th century new waves of Jewish settlers arrived from the West, especially from Bohemia and Moravia. The 16th century began with conflicts between the Krakow Jews and the Czech Jews. New synagogues in Kazimierz, such as the High Synagogue and Remu Synagogue were built during this time period. The growth of the Jewish community in Krakow during the 16th and 17th century is made apparent by three new synagogues built in Krakow during these centuries. Eventually, the local Jewish community served as a model for other Jewish communities in the Polish kingdom and many statutes in Krakow were later replicated in other towns. The 17th century was distinguished by a struggle between Jewish traders and Christian merchants over Jewish commercial rights in Christian sectors. Next, the 18th century was marked by the struggle between the citizens of Krakow and the Jews of Kazimierz over closing Krakow to Jewish trade and crafts. The anti-Jewish regulations were not successful and Jews still became involved in many areas of trade, including furs, wax, soap, salt and tobacco. Jews resided in Kazimierz until 1868, when the Kazimierz and Krakow communities finally merged. During the 19th century, many Jews assimilated to the Polish-German cultural life in Krakow. In 1900, at the turn of the century, Krakow had a Jewish population of 25,670.

'''The Interwar Period: '''

Following World War I, Poland posed a complicated question for the Allied powers. Geographically, lying between Germany and Russia, the country was important for the overall stability of Europe during the coming years. At the end of 1918, Poland was re-established as a republic, after years of Russian, Prussian and Austrian occupation. Although, the republic had no constitution, no established authorities and no internal recognition. One of the many goals of the Paris Peace Conference was to negotiate and determine the future of Poland, but this time was also characterized by unrest for Poles and Jews. Numerous pogroms ensued in Polish territories such as Krakow between the two groups. On June 6, 1919, a pogrom occurred in Krakow in which “one Christian woman and one Jewish boy were killed.… about 100 injured, including police, Christians and Jews .… several Christian shops as well as Jewish [were] pillaged.”

The Krakow Voivodeship served as the local government for a larger southern territory of Poland from 1919-1939, with Krakow as the capital city. The Krakow Voivodeship consisted of 91.3% Poles, 5.6% Jews and 2.5% Ukrainians. Overall, the Jews preferred to live in the cities and towns and in 1931 they made 19.2% of Voivodeship's city inhabitants.

During the interwar period all major religious, social and political groups worked actively, which created for a unique blend of Jewish culture in Yiddish, Hebrew and Polish. Krakow was considered the most important center of the Jewish culture "Polonization," or assimilation of Jews into Polish culture. During the census, the percentage of Jewish people admitting to use the Polish language was the highest of all the major cities in Poland. During interwar Krakow, Jews were continuing what the sociologist Milton Gordon would have referred to as cultural assimilation, or aculturation, that is, adapting to the cultural patterns of another group.

Several educational and cultural advances were made for Jews in Krakow during this time period. In 1931, the Hebrew Lower Secondary School school was established, which offered classes in both Hebrew and Polish. Additionally, the first Beis Yaakov was created in Krakow by Sara Zsenierere. The original school started in 1917, and it quickly multiplied into other campuses, establishing Jewish elementary and secondary schools throughout the world for Jewish girls from religious families.

According to the Polish census, there were 55,515 Jews living in Krakow in 1931. During the early 1930s, Krakow became a center of Jewish political and social life in Poland.

The Late 1930's: 

The years leading up to 1939 were characterized by mass deportation of Jews from Germany, often to Poland. An eyewitness report dated November 18, 1938 describes the aid sent from Krakow to 15,000 Jews expelled from Germany over the German-Polish border. The Polish-Jewish community collaborated in sending trucks from Krakow, Lodz and Posen full of food and warm clothing for the refugees.

On September 1, 1939, some 1.5 million troops invaded Poland. Following the invasion of Poland, the German army occupied Krakow during the first week of September 1939. Upon arrival, the Germans implemented anti-Jewish policies against religious life. First and foremost, on September 13th, 1939, all synagogues in Krakow were closed. Eventually, Poland was divided between Germany and the Soviet Union, with Germany occupying the Western territories, the Soviet Union occupying the Eastern territories, and a German-occupied territory which became known as the General Government in the center of the country. Hans Frank, the governor of the General Government, quickly established Krakow as the capital of the territory. By Frank's request, Jews began to be pushed out of Krakow into the surrounding villages. According to Frank, the population of 60,000 Jews in Krakow needed to be reduced to 50,000 Jews. First, some Jews left voluntarily, but after some time, more were brutally forced to leave their homes in Krakow.

During 1939, the German government began to establish Jewish Councils, known as Judenrate, in Jewish communities. These councils were meant to spread the German orders among the Jewish community, and to ensure they were fulfilled. Marek Bieberstein became the first Head of the the Krakow Jewish Council, which was established in September 1939.

By November 1939, the Jewish population in Krakow had risen to 70,000. This increase in population was reflective of the Jews who fled or were forced from the countryside into the city, and the arrival of Jews deported from the District Wartheland, a territory of German-occupied Poland that was annexed to the Greater German Reich.