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Dental Modifications Within the Ancient Maya

Dental modification within the Maya likely began around the Maya Classic Period (AD 250-900) and continued even after the Maya collapse. The Maya practiced many different forms of alteration on their teeth, varying not only between the communities, but also within the members of the same community. Teeth were scratched, polished, and had grooves etched into the labial surfaces. In some cases, teeth were even filed down enough to cement small gemstones into them. The barrel shaped stone was often turquoise, pyrite (fool’s gold) or jade. The modifications were usually found in the elite class members of society. There was no difference of significance in the number or people who bared the dental alterations between males and females.

Thanks to isotopic analysis, modern scientist can determine what the Maya ate. It is widely agreed that the Maya mostly grew maize and beans, although squash, sweet potatoes, pumpkin, tomatoes, chili peppers, and various fruits were also a part of their diet. The diet of the Maya is important to consider when looking at their teeth and understanding why they had a relatively low amount of dental carries (cavities). When a society eats a diet low in simple carbohydrates, which the bacteria that causes caries thrives off of, they have a lowered risk of developing dental caries. This is why hunter-gatherer groups are seen to have the lowest rates of dental caries. As the society becomes more sedentary, they tend to rely more on prepared plant foods. The process of preparing these plants often breaks down the complex sugars into simple sugars, and the rate of dental caries is thus bound to increase. Many Maya had increasingly sedentary living arrangements as the empires grew, yet they were able to keep their diet fairly dependent on complex sugars.

The Maya empire expanded to include present day southeastern Mexico, all of Guatemala, western Honduras, and parts of western El Salvador. The region contains the northern lowlands encompassing the Yucatán Peninsula, and the highlands of the Sierra Madre. Maya lands also stretch from the Mexican state of Chiapas, across the southern portion of Guatemala and into El Salvador. The name "Maya" that has been set to this cultural grouping of people, is a modern term that refers to all of the people inhabiting the region. The indigenous populations did not refer to themselves with this term since there was not a unified sense of identity or political unity among the differing tribes. The Maya were known to modify more than just their teeth, many different body modifications were common throughout the culture. Some of these modifications include skull binding and shaping, fostering of crossed (or strabismus) eyes, piercings of the ears and face, and tattoos. All these modifications were due not only to closely held beliefs regarding bodily functions and the cosmos, but also the fact that these modifications were seen to make the modified person more beautiful. The mouth was particularly special in the Maya phrenology, as it was believed to be “both a threshold and a duct for breath, taste, and sound”. The Quichean Popol Vuh (the “Book of Counsel” for the Quiche Maya of present-day Guatemala, is a historical chronicling of their chiefs and heroes) conceptualizes teeth to be maize kernels. These kernels give the needed strength to their home body in order to live and were the gate keepers between the oral cavity and the extrinsic world. Teeth and their subsequent modifications were believed to channel aromas, Ik breath, and speech.

Dental modifications occur in cultures all around the world. One example of this being the Basongo Menos tribe in present-day Democratic Republic of Congo. The name was given to the tribe from Belgian colonists, who speculated the natives practiced cannibalism. It is derived from the Belgian words “ba” (the people), “songa” (to file), and “meno” (teeth). The Basongo Menos people are also known as the Zappo Zap tribe. Due to the harmful colonialism of the Belgians, a young Congolese boy names Ota Benga (1883-1916) was kidnapped and taken to the United States to be on exhibit at the St. Louis World’s Fair so that visitors could look at his severely sharpened front teeth. After the World’s Fair, Ota was taken to the Bronx Zoo to be on exhibit until he was released to live in an orphanage in Virginia. He later took his own life there.

In Indonesia, teeth filing has remained a long-standing tradition. It signifies a coming of age for maturing members of the group. The teeth that are filed are the front six teeth, as the incisors and canines are believed to represent the six wicked desires. It is hoped that filing down the teeth will eliminate these desires. More often in modern society, these cultures practice symbolic teeth filing rather than the real ceremony. Balinese and Javanese people are the two ethnic groups that have been known to participate this form of dental modification in the past.

While all of these variations may seem like something reminiscent of the past, even modern Western cultures participate in dental modifications. Even though dental practice is getting better and more advanced, tooth loss, dental carries, and a general dislike of the appearance of teeth remain a common problem. Dental implants, bridges, fillings, crowns, and teeth whitening are all common place procedures that are likely to be happening in a general dentist office on any given day. According to studies done by the American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons, 69% of adults in the United States of America aged 35-44 have lost at least one, if not more, permanent teeth to gum disease, tooth decay, an accident, or a failed root canal. This leaves procedures like the ones listed above to remain in high demand. In specialty practices, one could also witness veneers, braces, tooth extractions, or any number of other procedures. These procedures are generally more for a superficial appeal, rather than necessity.

There were several different types of dental modifications that were common practice within the Maya culture. Different designs of filing, fillings, and inlays were common practice among teeth of young adults aged 21-35. Modifications were done for several different reasons, perhaps the most prevalent reason being that it was a symbol of being among the elite class of society. Most modifications were practiced on young adults but was occasionally practiced on older members of the community. The modifications were likely completed with Obsidian, hardened bone drills, and aided by water.

Inlays are nearly impossible to complete of primary/deciduous teeth due to the pulp cavity’s size in relation to the crown size. The enamel on permanent (thickness of about 2-3mm) is consistently thicker than primary teeth (thickness of about 1mm), and the pulp chamber is much smaller in relation to their crown size on a permanent tooth. Due to this, the person drilling the hole in the tooth has much more room for potential error. The thinness of the primary enamel also contributed to the low number of inlays performed on these teeth. Since the enamel is so thin, it cannot easily withstand the drilling process and have a higher likelihood of chipping or cracking. Furthermore, primary teeth are usually only seen in children starting at 6 months of age, with the child having a full set of deciduous teeth around the age of three. A full set of primary teeth has 20 total teeth, with two incisors, one canine and 2 molars in each quadrant. These teeth start to fall out by the time the child is approximately 5.5 years of age. A child’s primary teeth are shed due to the permanent coming down on top of the roots of the primary teeth. The deciduous roots are longer and slenderer than those of permanent teeth, so they disintegrate under the pressure, allowing the teeth to fall out. The last of a child’s primary teeth have usually been shed by the time they are of approximately 12 years of age, and most of the permanent teeth have descended (the 18-year-old molars, better known as the Wisdom teeth, come in later on). A full set of permanent contains 32 total teeth, with two incisors, one canine, two premolars, and 3 molars in each quadrant. However, every person is different and will gain and lose their teeth at different times.

Some archaeologists approximate that only one out of every twenty teeth (permanent) that were receiving an inlay was drilled too far and reached the pulp. When a pulp was exposed, the tooth was immediately cemented shut and did not receive an inlay. The owner of the tooth usually still ended up having pain and other issues with the tooth, and the mistake often ended in the eventual loss of the tooth.

As mentioned previously, dental modifications are almost always practiced on young adults aged 21 to 35 years. They were rarely applied to the teeth of subadults aged 18 to 20 years, but it was not unheard of. Far more uncommon were modifications on deciduous teeth, yet recent examinations by archaeologists have revealed a few instances of filing on the upper central incisors and lower central incisors of children. There are presently three Maya sites known which boast proof of these instances: Jaina, Comalcalco, and Balcón de Montezuma. These three sites are all located adjacent to the Gulf of Mexico. Currently, there is only one instance of inlays in deciduous teeth in Mesoamerican remains. The child is thought to have been approximately five years old at time of death, so it is impossible to determine the sex of the child as they had not yet entered puberty. The inlays in this child were located in the two upper lateral incisors.

It is unknown when the inlays were placed into the child’s teeth, but due to the nature of deciduous teeth, it is unlikely that it was completed while the child was still alive. The inlays were most likely inlayed after the death of the child, but before their burial. The teeth still had full roots, so it is unlikely that the teeth had fallen out before inlayed and reinserted. The pattern of the distal filing of the child’s teeth is likely to be representative of a shark’s tooth, which is associated with sacrifice. An interpretation of this postmortem modification is that the child’s death was seen as a great loss or even sacrifice, although there was no evidence on the child’s bones that suggested they were ceremoniously sacrificed.