User:RianneM/Zwolle Bible

The Zwolle Bible is a 15th century illuminated manuscript study Bible, made in the Dutch city of Zwolle. This manuscript has been regarded as one of the highlights of the Utrecht University Library Special Collections, where it is held as Ms. 31. The Zwolle Bible is badly damaged: in the 17th and 18th century a great number of illuminated initials were cut out. Visitors to St. Mary's Church in Utrecht, including foreigners such as the English William Brockman, have also left their names in the Zwolle Bible.

The Zwolle Bible was created between 1462 and 1476 in the common house of the Brethren of the Common Life in Zwolle. It consists of 6 volumes of around 600 pages each.

Description
The Zwolle Bible consists of 6 monumental volumes, each measuring 56 x 48 x 15 cm and weighing around 20 kilograms. Volume 1-4 contain the Old Testament text, volume 5 contains the New Testament and volume 6 the psalms. Each volume consists of around 600 leaves (folios). The manuscript is written in a Gothic textualis formata in two columns on very good quality vellum. Folios 1-199 of volume 6 deviate from this: these pages have been divided in three columns. About 870 skins have been used to produce this manuscript. The covers, made of pig leather over wooden boards, are not original, but from the 1940s.

The manuscript has been badly damaged by the removal of initials and whole leafs. 49 leafs are missing. Originally the Zwolle Bible contained at least 141 illuminated initials made by three different illuminators. 23 historiated initials and 70 decorated initials are extant. In addition, 5 initials have resurfaced since 1984.

History
The Zwolle Bible was previously held at the Utrecht St. Mary's Church of the St. Mary chapter. Patron and dates of the manuscripts have been noted in the colophons. Hermannus Droem, dean of the St. Mary chapter, ordered the Bible from the common house of the Brethren of the Common Life in Zwolle. He paid 500 golden guilders for the manuscripts, an enormous sum in the 15th century. In comparison, for the same amount of money the chapter also bought two stately chapter houses in Utrecht.

The copyist of the Zwolle Bible is not mentioned in the colophon, but nevertheless known due to a chronicle of the common house written in 1500. His name was Jacobus van Enkhuizen (also spelled: Enkhuysen). He was the librarian of the common house.

The first volume of the Zwolle Bible was completed on November 24th 1464, the last volume March 20th 1476. The colophons make clear that it took 700 to 800 days to write one volume. Therefore the production of the first volume, finished in 1464, must have started in June or July of 1462. Several more dates found throughout the manuscript show that Jacobus van Enkhuizen was writer of great regularity.

After Utrecht had joined the Reformation and became Protestant, the city council wanted to open a city library. However, the chapter of St. Mary's Church refused to donate their books to this city library after it opened in the Janskerk in 1584. This led mayor Dirk Canter himself to ask in 1592 for the opening of the library of the St. Mary's Church to the general public. This opening required the books to be chained down to prevent theft. Even so many tourists left their names in the Zwolle Bible. Several 17th and 18th century travel journals even mention the Zwolle Bible by name. William Brockman, and Englishman, wrote for example in 1686 that he had left his name in both the Old and the New Testament. The disappearance of many leaves and initials is probably also due to this stream of visitors.

The chapter of St. Mary was dissolved in 1811. Its property was turned over to the State and first stored at the Domein-archief in Utrecht. In 1844 the books were given to the Utrecht University.

Contents
The Latin text of the Zwolle Bible is the so-called Windesheim Vulgate Revision. This revision of the Bible text was intended to create a standard text for use in the monasteries of the Windesheim Congregation, because Bible text could differ greatly between manuscripts in the Middle Ages. The Zwolle Bible is one of two extant manuscripts that contain this revision. The other manuscript is Darmstadt, Landesbibliothek Hs. 324, written by Thomas à Kempis between 1427 and 1439.

The last volume of the Zwolle Bible contains the psalms in a psalterium triplex: three versions of the psalms next to each other. The three columns contain the Psalterium Gallicanum, the Psalterium Romanum and the Psalterium iuxta Hebraeos. The collection of psalms itself has also been divided in three parts: psalm 1-50, 51-100 and 101-150. Every first page of these parts has been lavishly decorated. Consequently, all three leaves have been cut out. One of those is currently held in a private collection.

Decorations
Every Bible book and almost every prologue in the Zwolle Bible starts with a decorated initial. Many of these initials are enhanced with gold leaf. Pages with a historiated initial also have border decoration with plants, flowers and fruits. The remainder of the manuscript is not illuminated.

Only a small number of different colors has been used for the decorations and paint has been applied sparsely. The illuminators used mostly pink, red, blue and green. The compositions have also been kept simple, with no more figures than necessary. Often, inspiration for these compositions was found in woodcuts and engravings.

The first volume of the Zwolle Bible differs in illumination. The other two volumes have been attributed to two 'masters of the Zwolle Bible', who probably worked in the common house of the Brethren.

Volume one is introduced by the largest historiated initial in the manuscript. This initial show the seven days of Creation, however the paint has been badly damaged.

Three initials from the Zwolle Bible resurfaced in 1984. An initial with the prophet Micah was bought by the Utrecht University Library at an auction in London. Afterwards, two more intials were identified in the Museum Catharijneconvent in Utrecht: Moses with the Ten Commandments and an evangelist portrait of John. In 1994, an initial with David and Bathseba appeared, again in London at an auction of Sotheby's. As the Utrecht University Library did not succeed in buying the initial this time, it is now held in a private collection. A whole leaf from the psalms appeared in 2008 and is now also in a private collection.

Function
The Zwolle Bible is a study Bible. The sparse and light decoration structures the text, leading to an impression of functionality and sobriety that is typical of the Devotio Moderna movement that the Brethren of the Common Life belonged to. The psalterium triplex is also a common feature of study Bibles, as it allows the reader to compare different versions of the psalms. The division in three parts of each 50 psalms has likewise the goal to ease the use of the psalterium.