User:Rlvaughters

Sociological Concepts Durkheim’s explanation for sucide-Social integration or ‘bonding’ varies across groups, those groups with lower rates of ‘bonding’ have higher rates of suicide.

Social regulation or community control on individuals varies across groups, those groups with lower rates of community control have higher rates of suicide Paradigms Theoretical Paradigm / Theoretical Perspective: A conceptual framework that guides thinking and research. paradigms organize what we see into a 	coherent whole. example: a common mental process they are perspectives that suggest certain types of explanations – not explanations themselves. Sociological paradigms Sociology uses three primary paradigms to analyze the social world. 1.	Functionalist Paradigm 2.	Conflict Paradigm 3.	Symbolic Interactionist Paradigm

Macro-level orientation: A focus on broad social structures that shape society as a whole

Status and role 1) Status: A recognized social position that an individual occupies. 2) Role:  Behavior expected of someone who holds a particular status. Three paradigms

Functionalist Paradigm : Society is a complex system whose parts work harmoniously together to maintain order and stability.

Conflict paradigm: Society is a complex, unstable system characterized by forms of domination that produce strains and tensions system benefits some at the expense of 	others ,	system tends to reproduce inequalities, however

Ideology: Cultural beliefs that justify social inequalities.

Apply Concepts Social control: Various means by which members of society encourage conformity to norms. ~ relations between socialization and social control a.	guilt (self) vs. shame (others) b.	positive / negative sanctions

Subcultures: Cultural patterns that set apart some segment of the population

Countercultures: Subcultures that oppose the dominant culture.

Hegemony:	A condition by which a dominant group uses its power to elicit the voluntary ‘consent’ of the masses

Discourse: The framework of thinking in a particular area of social life.

Ethnocentrism is judging another culture solely by the values and standards of one's own culture

McDonaldization a.	As mass media becomes larger and more centralized – a restricted range of cultural perspectives and experiences are available. Related to webers rationalization

Dimension of rationalization include and emphasis on: 1)	Efficiency – Shortest, fastest, and most productive way 	2)	Calculability – Quantification of results 3)	Predictability – Through establishing uniform procedures 	4)	Control – Automated systems Cultural Imperialism: The imposition of one culture’s beliefs, practices, and artifacts on another culture through mass media and consumer products

Conspicuous consumption: Buying and using products because of the “statement” they make about social position Taste cultures: Areas of culture that share similar aesthetics and standards of taste. examples – Pictures in home -	Upper Class: Abstract art -	Working/Middle: Photos of family Socialization Structure Id: ~“it”, basic instinctual drives~ located in the unconscious Super-ego: cultural norms lodged in the personality ~ conscience / guilt ~ an internalized censor ~ also an ego ideal

ego: balancing cultural norms with pleasure seeking.

Erikson Socialization throughout the life-course

People develop capacities to perform within specific settings	through overcoming challenges Herbert Mead Concepts

Self: A dimension of the personality composed of self-awareness and self-image.

Cooley's Looking glass self: Conception of self based on the responses of others. Paradigms on Crime & Deviance

Structural-functionalist view laws (formal norms) as expressing the will, the general interests, and the moral sentiments of entire community.

Conflict perspective view laws (formal norms) as reflecting the will, sentiments, and interests of powerful groups.

Symbolic-interactionists view laws (formal norms) as constituted through interactions across multiple groups. . Durkheim's Functions of Deviance ~      Durkheim's used functionalism to see deviance as 'serving' or 'functional for' society at large in four ways. Responding to deviance affirms cultural values and norms. Responding to deviance clarifies moral boundaries. Responding to deviance promotes social unity. Deviance encourages social change. .                Merton's Strain Theory of Deviance Merton thought we could think of social life as an acceptance of the ends and the means that society offers us. ends: the cultural goals and things found culturally valuable that we strive toward. means: the ways that we go about achieving those culturally valuable goals.

control theory Hirschi centers the explanation for deviance on societies ability to control individual temptations for deviance. sutherland's differential association theory / social learning theory Deviance or conformity come about by a process of learning certain behaviors and attitudes. This learning is based on both attitudes and knowledge

Reiman operates from a conflict perspective – he takes the entire criminal justice system as an ideology in the sense that it distorts the real nature of social problems, provides few or very poor solutions to these problems, and is actually a social problem in its own right But poverty is the ‘root’ or ‘source’ of most crime Principles of stratification Social stratification: a system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy.

castes and classes: Categories of people that share a common relationship to essential resources.

Intergenerational mobility: Differences in class standing from an individual’s family background to their own adult status.~	Between generations

Intragenerational mobility: Differences in class standing from one point in an individual’s standing to a later point. Within one generation / one individual

Over half of sons and daughters born into white collar/blue collar families become white collar/blue collar themselves.

Ideology: Cultural beliefs that serve to justify social stratification or legitimate forms of inequality.

Force: The ability to maintain inequality through coercion and violence .	Mechanism: Because schooling is the main route to success in class based systems, living in a poor neighborhood reproduces disadvantage because schools are funded through the local tax base.

Life chances: The unequal distribution of opportunities to achieve and gain material rewards in a stratification system Analysis of income inequality in the U.S.

globalization of capital / capital flight

high paying manufacturing jobs have been relocated overseas because employers only have to pay a fraction of what they pay here for labor.

de-industrialization: the closing of factories, the rise of manufacturing unemployment, and the relocation of manufacturing outside the country.

with the declining manufacturing sector, a rise in the service sector employment service sector pays less on average than manufacturing

residential segregation: the physical and spatial separation of groups of people according to neighborhoods. Conflict analysis: Marx and Weber Classical Marxism: Exploitation is cause of inequality Exploitation is the central element of the capitalist economy. Exploitation produces two broad classes – the workers (proletariat) and capitalists (bourgeoisie)

Weber: Multiple dimensions of stratification that lead to composite ranking of Socio-Economic Status (SES). Class (relative economic positions) Status (social prestige) Power (influence) Micro – application: High School Cliques

Marx’s model of class is simpler and more categorical - you are ‘in’ or ‘out’ of a certain class standing.

Weber’s model of stratification is more complex and gradational closed stratification systems (caste) have high status consistency open stratification systems (class) have lower status consistency

Structure-Functionalist analysis Davis-Moore thesis: The argument that social stratification has beneficial consequences for the operation of a society because inequality creates rewards for demanding/difficult jobs. Functionalists assume that those occupations that pay more are more important to society, but the way they measure ‘importance to society’ is through the monetary rewards it offers. Thus, the logic is circular. Dependency theory: Explains global inequality as a consequence of a world system where rich countries exploit poor countries Poverty

Deficiency theories – something about the poor themselves explains their poverty.

Structural theories – something about the social environment explains poverty.

Deficiency Theories

Biological arguments: The poor are deficient (lacking) in basic intelligence – hence – they can’t compete.

The culture of poverty argues it is the culture of the poor that explains their poverty

Structure theories

Structure of poverty: W.J. Wilson’s argument that structures of globalization, residential segregation, and de- industrialization create the conditions for inner city poverty. Race vs. Ethnicity Race has traditionally referred to biological markers that  distinguish similar populations.

Ethnicity has traditionally referred to a shared cultural heritage.

The traditional distinction has been premised on the analogy of:

Race = body or biology / ethnicity = culture

The new understanding of race is not as biology, but as a social construct.

Social Justice – because the categories of race and the groupings surrounding race are shifting, contested sets of definitions – ‘race’ is 	more closely tied to cultural and political conditions that impose definitions 	rather than to a purely ‘objective’, ‘natural’ standard.

Prejudice:	A rigid and irrational generalization about an entire 	category of people

Discrimination treating people differently

Institutional prejudice and discrimination / Institutional racism:  Bias inherent in the operation of society’s formal organizations and institutions including schools, banks, police, workforce.

Internalized racism: Minority groups internalize the image the 	dominant group has of them, resulting in feelings of inferiority.

gender vs. sex traditional ideas of sex differences =  biological categories Terms: Male, Female traditional ideas of gender difference = cultural categories Terms: Masculine, Feminine social construction of gender perspective: Culture and society shape both gender and sex. Masculine to male

sex roles perspective: Culture expresses biological distinction of sex. Male to masculine

Gender roles vary across different societies (comparatively) and within societies over time

From Rosie in the 1940s to Father Knows Best in the 1950s

Social construction of gender perspective: Culture and society shape both gender and sex.

Application: Culture establishes the idea that there are only two genders / sexes, that this is natural as opposed to social, and that all individuals fit into one or the other!

Argues There are only two sexes, these sexes are purely natural, and there is only two genders

Functionalist Perspectives Family is composed of complimentary roles for men and women Assumption that roles are complimentary

Instrumental roles: Men are breadwinners and decision-makers

Expressive roles: Women nurture children and manage emotions in family

Gender isn’t something we have, it is something we perform everyday.

Model: We internalize ideas about the appropriate ways of being ‘men’ 	and ‘women’ in our society. Bem sex role inventory: Bem studied the ways we organize the world into schemas – simplified models that are attached to gender.

one side is given greater importance

Gender binaries operate to create two categories (masculine and feminine) but to assume that one of these categories is the default – the masculine. . Marxist Approaches: 1)	Engels (of Marx and Engels):  Marriage emerges as an institution from an era of equality/matriarchy as a way to ensure the transmission of wealth from men to their heirs.

Liberal feminism: Employs a strategy based on the critique of discrimination of ascribed status as women, focuses on the individual. Radical feminism: Employs strategy based on the critique of the interconnections in a patriarchal sex-gender system, focuses on power and men’s control of sexuality as a cultural and material institution

Gender stratification: The unequal distribution of wealth, power, and privilege between men and women.

Pay gap: Women earn 77% of men in 2008 Causes of pay gap gendered occupational segregation impact of socialization – gender “appropriate” professions human capital: gendered family specialization impact of socialization – gender “appropriate” investments s in family discrimination and the glass ceiling sexuality Kinsey Scale of Human Sexuality In breaking from the assumption of categorical differences in sexual orientation – Kinsey theorized a continuum  from heterosexual to homosexual that included behavior, fantasy, and general attraction Queer Theory-this paradigm emphases the importance of difference and rejects as restrictive the idea of innate sexuality. Sexual scripts: Cultural frameworks that help shape sexual desire and sexual practices. Sexual orientation: The inclination to feel sexual desire toward people of a particular gender or toward both genders.

Conflict Theory

Sexual scripts and practices delineate a hidden structure that reveals privileges for various groups.

Sexual double standard: Different expectations for men and women.

Heteronormativity: Assumption of hetero-normative standards, frequently centered on traditional male role, for all people.

Contemporary Theory: the ‘pure relationship

The pure relationship explains how – as societies modernize – individuals express choices not previously available across the relationship of: love relationships : less for purpose of procreation or stable marriage, seen to fulfill and express individual identity social change -	Each of the major social thinkers were curious about the rise of the modern world. -	Each major thinker created concepts used to capture this dramatic change.

Name		cause of change		problem in society Marx 		capitalism 		alienation and expoltation Weber 		rationality 		iron cage bureaucray

Durkhem	increasing divisions in labor 	anomie

Marx is a conflict theorist – he believes societies change because of tensions and conflicts between different groups over time

Materialism: how goods are produced shape ideas and sentiments.

Idealism: ideas and values are primary determinates of societies Modernization as transformation in economy: -	Feudalism was a type of agricultural society. Land was the key resource controlled by the a monarch who ‘gave’ land to the aristocracy (barons, knights, lords) in exchange for their provision of military resources.

Capitalism arose from Feudalism through the expansion of trade and of small scale manufacturing – a new capitalist class emerged that, on the basis of its economic power, challenged and overthrew the dominance of the aristocracy and monarchy.

Capitalism as a dynamic system: technology, competition, and the explosion of markets

Innovation - If the only source of profit is labor time, capital must increase the productivity of labor time while keeping wages constant . Weber Weber is a philosophical idealist – Marx a philosophical materialist

Rationalization of society: historical change from tradition to rationality as dominant form of thought. i.	Tradition: Sentiments and beliefs about the world passed from generation to generation. ii. Rationality: Deliberate, matter-of-fact calculation of the most efficient means to accomplish a particular task. Iron cage of Bureaucracy: Alienation of modern life following the widespread dissemination of formal rationality to all spheres of life. 1)Formal rationality:  Efficient means (ways) to pre-given ends (goals). 2)  Substantive rationality:    Consideration of both means (ways) and ends (goals). Protestant and Calvinist doctrines ~ provide the cultural preconditions for capitalism to rise God’s calling: Doing work in this world rather than in the isolation of monastery. 2)Predestination: As a critique of the selling of indulgences by the Church, predestination meant one could neither  work nor buy one’s way to heaven. wealth/success as sign of salvation – Calvinists worked for wealth and success as a spiritual matter, not for pleasure. Evolve from religious ethic to work ethic			Durkheim Durkheim’s rule:  “Treat social facts as things.” Types of social solidarity

Solidarity varies based on the underlying division of labor -	Modernity emerges in conditions of organic solidarity. a.	Types of solidarity 1)	Mechanical Solidarity: Social cohesion based on sameness.			-	low division of labor			-	low tolerance for difference / deviants			-	collective identity over individualized idenity		2)	Organic:  Social cohesion based on difference and the interdependence of the parts. -	high division of labor -	high tolerance for difference/deviants -	individualized identity over collective identity b.	Problems with modernity = increase in levels of anomie.

-	Anomie = Norm-less ness -  A condition in which society provides little moral guidance.