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= Quaestiones disputatae de malo (Disputed Questions on Evil) = Disputed Questions on Evil (Quaestiones disputatae de malo in Latin) is a work written in the scholastic disputation style by Thomas Aquinas. The work focuses on questions surrounding the nature of evils, specifically moral evils committed by human beings, what are generally referred to as moral agents. Each question generally covers a broad topic of evil, which then is specifically separated into several forms of sins in keeping with the Christian understanding of capital vices. Further exposition is given on the relationship between fault and punishment, and the will and act of a human. Aquinas heavily references Augustinian theology and Aristotelian philosophy for the majority of the work, whilst also giving reference back to other scholastic writers and his own Summa Theologiae, which was still being written around the time On Evil is understood to have been completed.

The work largely reflects scholastic ideas surrounding penalty, fault, and the human will that is moved toward either good or evil acts. The Augustinian idea of the will dictating the nature of the act is present in Aquinas' writings, and On Evil gives treatment to this in the cases where acts are done by moral agents that are considered to be evil or sinful.

Time of Composition
It is generally estimated that On Evil was written sometime between AD 1266 and 1272, though the precise date of completion of the work is not fully established. It is somewhat certain that Aquinas had completed the majority, if not the entirety, of the work by 1269 because at that time it is known that he had begun to work on his Summa Theologiae, specifically the first part of the second part. Though On Evil and the Summa have a few cross references, it does not appear that the author intended to directly cite his master work in theology in giving disputation on the questions of evil.

Translations
Several manuscripts in original Latin have survived through the centuries, with a fully Latin publishing provided by the Leonine Commission in 1982. English translations exist both in online formats and printed editions.

Structure and Method
In common with scholastic teaching and intellectual activity of the period, On Evil is written in a style of a series of major questions that are answered through a series of minor articles that give treatment to certain aspects of the major question. This is the exact same method and manner that Aquinas uses in the Summa, and was used by other theological and philosophical writers in the medieval period. These works were largely based on oral disputations that took a systematic approach to answering questions regarding important topics of the day. First the master of the lecture would give an oral presentation on the topic at hand, and after the students were allowed some period to reflect and consider the proposed position, they would respond with objections. These objections would be recorded by an assistant and then considered by the master at a later time. The master of the lecture would then return with a fully formed response to any objections raised and a more or less final answer to the original question. It would only be later in course of the academic period that these oral debates and objections would be catalogued and eventually published as a complete work on certain disputed topics. Therefore these types of works are less of a direct recording of every single talking point in a discussion, but more of the ideas presented for and against a certain position. This type of recording is somewhat similar to other ancient or Biblical authors.

On Evil does not take a different approach to such a process and the work is broken down into sixteen major questions, with a total of 101 articles spread between them. Those questions that Aquinas appears to have thought more stringent or important are given numerous articles, while others that are considered obvious or somewhat middling are left with perhaps only one or two articles. This could have been due to the progression of the lecture and discussion on the topic or Aquinas' preference or even requests by other scholars and officials in the church. The precise structure is below.


 * 1) On Evil - whether evil itself is something or a privation, and whether evil can be found on its own or does it only exist in good. Further on what the cause of evil is specifically.
 * 2) On Sins - whether every sin must be an act, whether all acts are indifferent, and whether certain sins are more evil than other sins by nature of circumstance or ignorance.
 * 3) On the Cause of Sin - whether God, ignorance, the Devil, or some other force is the cause of sin (note this is not the same treatment as what is the cause of evil, for while every sin is evil, not every evil is a sin according to Aquinas).
 * 4) On Original Sin - what it is specifically, how it is transferred from one person to another, and if the sins of ancestors are reflected in their children.
 * 5) On the Punishment of Original Sin - whether the denial of the beatific vision is the appropriate punishment for original sin, and whether children who die with only original sin are punished.
 * 6) On Human Choice - whether humans choose out of necessity or by free will.
 * 7) On Venial Sin - whether it affects charity, whether certain acts aggravate venial sin, and whether purgatory is the proper punishment for such sins.
 * 8) On Capital Vices - whether capital vices are correctly itemized by Gregory I, and whether pride is the mother of all vices.
 * 9) On Vainglory
 * 10) On Envy
 * 11) On Acedia
 * 12) On Anger
 * 13) On Avarice
 * 14) On Gluttony
 * 15) On Lust
 * 16) On the Demons - whether demons have certain powers over man, whether they have the ability to read men's thoughts (called internal movements by Aristotle), whether they may return to good by free choice, and whether demons are directly able to change man's mind.

Most articles are well cited regarding references to works by Aristotle, Augustine, Ambrose, and other authors from the ancient world or the early church period. Gregory's The Books of the Morals is cited consistently in Questions VIII-XV because of the similarities in topic.

Interestingly, Aquinas only gives one article to whether man chooses his actions out of necessity or by free will. This is possibly for two reasons; firstly it was generally accepted in scholastic circles that man had free will to choose his own actions and will based upon the writings of Augustine, particularly On the Free Choice of the Will and The City of God. Secondly, it is likely that the author found it somewhat redundant to continue to reverse the precise same question as he had already spent some deal of time on in the Summa (Ia, q. 83, a. 1; I-IIae, q. 13, a. 6) and Disputed Questions on Truth(q. 24, a. 1). After discussing the matter for some length referencing On the Soul by Aristotle, Aquinas settles the matter with finality by stating that since all sins are committed by at least the will, something he answered in Question III, and the will is never moved against its own nature and desire, there is no possibility that moral evil is committed by necessity. By answering such a question at the early stage in the work it provided a suitable and stable foundation for Aquinas to delve into the more controversial topics regarding moral evils and human acts.

The work does not conclude in the same manner a more modern book, that is with a sort of conclusion, since the topics are so disparate and the answered ascertained so wide ranging and niche for each particular question, such a conclusion would become incredibly long and tedious. Therefore, in mirroring the lecture system that provided its materials, On Evil simply concludes with the final article ending as the preceding articles had done.

Citations and References
Aquinas was by this point well known in ecclesiastical spheres and by 1269 had been reappointed to the regency of the University of Paris. This coupled with his propensity to produce scholarly works likely added credence to his writings, no matter the topic in question. Unfortunately, On Evil appears to be lost in a sea of Averroism that had by time become rather troublesome in Christian intellectual spheres, so much so that Thomas was likely asked to write several works against the idea and those that followed it. Of course, since Aquinas was also inspired by Aristotelian metaphysics and analysis, he was consistently careful to ensure that the virtues of Aristotle were never completely disregarded.

As in his other works, Aquinas often used titles for certain important writers of Scripture and secular works. For instance, the Apostle Paul is simply called "the Apostle" the a good portion of disputations and works. Aristotle is also simply called "the Philosopher" though it is obvious that Aquinas did not believe he was the only philosopher to ever live.

Disputed Questions on Evil cites a myriad of Christian and secular sources, specifically Metaphysics, Physics, Nicomachean Ethics, and several others by Aristotle. Almost every major work by Augustine is used in at least some regard by Aquinas (some 63 separate works named in the appendix of the Leonine Commission release), an amazing feat considering that Augustine's works spanned almost every topic of theology. Other lesser known authors are cited in all questions, both in the initial exposition of the argument and the ultimate response.