User:Romaine/Athletic identity

Athletic identity is a part of self-identity and can be defined as the level, to which one identifies with the role of an athlete. It is a self-concept that guides and organises the processing of information concerning the self.

When it comes down to sports, males and females are often separated into two different groups, this is generally due to a difference in physical strength. Aside from this physiological difference, there is often also a dominant culture surrounding the sport. Like for Judo, the dominant culture would be a male culture (Ronkainen et al., 2016). Based on the study done by Ronkainen et al. (2016) and confirmed by the study done by Palermo and Rancourt (2019), these factors conflict with the female narrative and are the cause for women to have a harder time creating an athletic identity and this is not likely to change in a short time. The cause of the sustain of this dominating male culture in sports is not limited to male athletes themselves but also includes coaches and women athletes.

Aside from just the male and female genders, athletic idenitity could potenitially be disrupted by a colliding idenity of being transgender or non-binary. It is colliding as there is a belief in sports that males are dominant, thus there are existing gender categories in sports (Braumüller, 2020). These categories include solely male or female gender, meaning non-binary individuals are automatically subjected to a difficult choice as to which category should they put themselves in. The choice is not only interfering with their gender identity, as chosing a side is the very thing they want to avoid by identifying as non-binary, but also a subject of mockery of other sport participants. Transgender and non-binary people are sometimes also blamed for not adjusting to the male/female segregation, because of physical advantages of male to female transgenders over „natural” women (Griffin, 2012). Because of that, sports organizations prevent the conflict by not allowing them to participate (Sykes, 2006), which in turn, makes it difficult for those people to keep their athletic identity. Most sports competitions require a match between biological gender and gender identity (Griffin, 2012). Female to male transgender athletes also face discrimination because of the belief that some sports are predominantly for males (Griffin, 2012). They are not being taken as serious rivals by other participants and mocked by sports fans.

Emotional aspect of participation in sports for transgender and non-binary people is negative not only because of constant discrimination, but also because of the experienced feeling on unsafety in the facilities such as the locker room (Muchicko et al., 2014). The most common form of transnegativity in those places is verbal. In a European study on transgender experience in sports results showed that almost all individuals experienced insults and other offensive comments, mostly from other contestants and a lot less from coaches and officials (Demers, 2017). There are also cases of physical abuse caused by transnegativity (Smith et al., 2012). This is one of the reasons why there are still lower participation rates in general physical activity for transgender people compared to cisgender (Muchicko et al., 2014), even though it is starting to become a fairly equal ratio (Kulick et al., 2018). Hostility, lack of social networks because of discrimination and missed opportunities because of the biological sex and gender identity alignment requirement led to general decline in self-confidence of non-cisgender participants (Hargie et al., 2017, p. 234). In the same study as mentioned above, participants were asked to rate how big of a problem transnegativity in sports is. The scale was from 1 to 5, 5 being a „big” problem and 1 „very small”. Most asked answered with a 5 (Braumüller, 2020).

Social support for participanting is also lower compared to cisgender sport participants. This affects non-cisgender psychologically by lesser perception of their physical self and lower efficiency in sport behaviour (Muchicko et al., 2014).

Nevertheless, there are some similarities in cisgender and non-cisgender sports participants. The abusers indicated were moslty the same for both groups, with a higher rate of coaches as abusers for cisgender participants (Braumüller, 2020). It should also be remembered that every trans and non-binary person's experience might differ because of the sport they chose, the accepted norms in a certain place and their general envinronment (Semerjian and Cohen, 2006).

The challenge presented when forming an athletic identity and the disruption experienced when gender narrative collides with the dominating culture of a sport can lead to disorders like depression, eating disorders and the like (Palermo & Rancourt, 2019).

Braumüller, B. (2020). Gender Identities in Organized Sports—Athletes’ Experiences and Organizational Strategies of Inclusion. Frontiers. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fsoc.2020.578213/full

Demers, G. (2017). Sports Experiences of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Athletes. Québec, QC: Laval University Press.

Griffin, P. (2012). “Ain't I a woman?”: Transgender and intersex student athletes in women's collegiate sports, in Transfeminist Perspectives in and Beyond Transgender and Gender Studies, ed. A. Enke (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press), 98–111.

Hargie, O. D., Mitchell, D. H., & Somerville, I. J. (2016). ‘People have a knack of making you feel excluded if they catch on to your difference’: Transgender experiences of exclusion in sport. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 52(2), 223–239. https://doi.org/10.1177/1012690215583283

Kulick, A., Wernick, L. J., Espinoza, M. A. V., Newman, T. J., & Dessel, A. B. (2018). Three strikes and you're out: culture, facilities, and participation among LGBTQ youth in sports. Sport, Education and Society, 24(9), 939–953. https://doi.org/10.1080/13573322.2018.1532406

Muchicko, M. M., Lepp, A., & Barkley, J. E. (2014). Peer victimization, social support and leisure-time physical activity in transgender and cisgender individuals. Leisure/Loisir, 38(3–4), 295–308. https://doi.org/10.1080/14927713.2015.1048088

Palermo, M., & Rancourt, D. (2019). An identity mis-match? The impact of self-reported competition level on the association between athletic identity and disordered eating behaviors. Eating Behaviors, 35, 101341.

Ronkainen, N. J., Kavoura, A., & Ryba, T. V. (2016). Narrative and discursive perspectives on athletic identity: Past, present, and future. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 27, 128–137.

Semerjian, T. Z., & Cohen, J. H. (2006). “FTM Means Female to Me”: Transgender Athletes Performing Gender. Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal, 15(2), 28–43. https://doi.org/10.1123/wspaj.15.2.28

Smith, M., Cuthbertson, S., and Gale, N. (2012). Out for Sport Report. Tackling Transphobia in Sport. Transgender Specific Companion Report. Edinburgh, Scotland: Equality Network.

Sykes, H. (2006). Transsexual and Transgender Policies in Sport. Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal, 15(1), 3–13. https://doi.org/10.1123/wspaj.15.1.3

Loss of athletic identity

Causes

The causes for losing the athletic identity vary but mostly they are related to a few indicators. Retirement can be named as one of the major causes for the loss of the athletic identity. [1] The retirement transition is distinguishable into normative and non-normative. While the former is anticipated and determined for instance by the athlete's age, graduation and deterioration of performance. The latter is characterized by the surprise and force of retirement. Thus, an injury disrupting the athletic performance could be considered as such. [2] Subsequently, the injury can take several forms, namely being temporary or permanent. [3]

In addition to that, the vast majority of athletes start their professional athletic career at a young age. Their occupation is often tied to high schools and colleges, which then implies that the termination of the career is frequently determined by the graduation from high schools or colleges. [4]

Moreover, the athletes can decide personally to terminate their career. [5] Since sportive activities are often linked to competitiveness, the loss of the athletic identity can be caused by deselection as well. [6] [1] Mannes, Z. L., Waxenberg, L. B., Cottler, L. B., Perlstein, W. M., Burrell II, L. E., Ferguson, E. G., Edwards, M. E., & Ennis, N. (2019). Prevalence and correlates of psychological distress among retired elite athletes: a systematic review. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 12(1), 265–294. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2018.1469162

[2] Lockhart, B. D. (2010). Injured Athletes' Perceived Loss of Identity: Educational Implications for Athletic Trainers. Athletic Training Education Journal, 5(1), 26–31. https://doi.org/10.4085/1947-380X-5.1.26

[3] Heird, E.B., & Steinfeldt, J.A. (2013). An Interpersonal Psychotherapy Approach to Counseling Student Athletes: Clinical Implications of Athletic Identity. Journal of College Counseling, 16, 143–157. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1882.2013.00033.x

[4] Heird, E.B., & Steinfeldt, J.A. (2013). An Interpersonal Psychotherapy Approach to Counseling Student Athletes: Clinical Implications of Athletic Identity. Journal of College Counseling, 16, 143–157. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1882.2013.00033.x

[5] Cockerill, I. (2005). They think it's all over, but it may not be! British Journal of Sports Medicine, 39(12), 880–883. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2004.016642

[6] Cockerill, I. (2005). They think it's all over, but it may not be! British Journal of Sports Medicine, 39(12), 880–883. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2004.016642

Athletic youth

Athletic identity starts evolving at an early age and accompanies individuals usually from childhood and their teenage years on, which could contribute to an overidentification with the chosen sport (Football Association, 2010). Social identities are formed during adolescents and having a strong athletic identity can have a huge influence on one's self-conception and personality (Edison & Christino, 2021). Young athletes are often hindered from making social experiences by sacrificing most of their free time for practice (Brown & Potrac, 2009). Besides having an intense schedule, building an athletic identity from a young age can benefit adolescents in many ways. Children that grow up in an ‘athletic environment’ are less vulnerable to mental health illnesses (Miller & Hoffmann, 2009) and show a reduced risk for suicide and isolation (Henderson & Thompson, 1998). Furthermore, an athletic identity helps building a positive and healthy connection to sports in general, hence encouraging a healthy lifestyle and activity (Sarac & Missoni, 2015).

1.    Football Association. (2010). The football association program for excellence rules and regulations. Retrieved from http://www.thefa.com/TheFA/RulesandRegulations/FARegulations/NewsAndFeatures/2003/Regs_ProgforExcellence

2.    Edison,B.R.;Christino, M.A.; Rizzone, K.H. Athletic Identity in Youth Athletes: A Systematic Review of the Literature. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18,7331. https://doi.org/10.3390/ ijerph18147331

3.    Brown, G., & Potrac, P. (2009). “You’ve not made the grade, son”: De‐selection andidentity disruption in elite level youth football. Soccer and Society, 10, 143–159.

4.    Miller, K.E.; Hoffman, J.H. Mental Well-Being and Sport-Related Identities inCollege Students. Sociol. Sport J. 2009, 26, 335–356. [CrossRef]

5.    Baumert, P.W.; Henderson, J.M.; Thompson, N.J. Health risk behaviors of adolescentparticipants in organized sports. J. Adolesc. Health 1998, 22, 460–465. [CrossRef]

Babic ́, V.; Sarac, J.; Missoni, S.; Sindik, J. Athletic Engagement and Athletic Identity in Top Croatian Sprint Runners. Coll. Antropol. 2015, 39, 521–528.

Athlete Identity and aggression

Many studies have indicated a positive relationship between athletes and higher levels of aggressive behaviour. (Xia, Xue, et al., 2018) Although there is still much speculation into the cause of this relationship. Empirical evidence has been suggested through the Athletic Idenity Maintaince model. (Amanda J. et al., 2011) This model looks at the link between athlete identity, anger and aggressiveness and suggests athlete identity to be playing a key role in the expression of aggressive behaviour among athletes. The main theoretical knowledge that led to the foundation of this model was provided through Burks (1991) identity process model. (Amanda J. et al., 2011) According to Burks (1991) identity process model, idenity processing acts as a “control system” to ensure that an individuals output behaviour is in line with their self perceived identity. Additionally, it claims that an individual will experience distress once this balance is distorted, consequently leading them to change their behaviour in order to restore balance. (Peter J. Burke, 1991) Thus, when an athlete feels their identity as being threatened (e.g. an positioning player taking their ball), they may expression aggressive behaviour in order to restore their identity as an athlete. (Amanda J. et al., 2011) Additionally, theoretical support provided through Wann's (1993) self esteem maintenance model looks at the role of sports fans aggressive behaviour towards coaches and opposing teams as a mean to restore the experience of a lowered self-esteem that may occur when their team performs poorly. (Amanda J. et al., 2011) Further research may suggest that (through the audience effect) sport fan aggressive behaviour may influence and potentially enhance aggressive behaviour amongst athletes. (Wann, D. L., & Hackathorn, J., 2019) Results of a large multi-cultural analysis with 569 male participants supports the Athletic Idenity Maintaince Model as a positive association between athlete identity, anger and aggression were found. Strong influences with respects to cultural differences and the type of sport were however found. (Amanda J. et al., 2011) Further research using EEG imaging also suggest biological evidence for impaired bahvioural inhibition amongst athletes. (Xia, Xue, et al., 2018)

Athletic identity and aggressiveness: A cross‐cultural analysis of the Athletic Identity Maintenance Model. Amanda J. et al. (2011). Retrieved May 15, 2022, from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1612197X.2010.9671936

Burke, Peter J. (Dec., 1991) Identity Processes and Social Stress - JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2096259.

Xia, Xue, et al. (Nov., 2018) “Anger Weakens Behavioral Inhibition Selectively in Contact Athletes.” Frontiers, Frontiers, 1 Jan. 1AD, https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2018.00463/full.

Wann, D. L., & Hackathorn, J. (2019). Audience effects in sport: The reciprocal flow of influence between athletes and spectators. In M. H. Anshel, T. A. Petrie, & J. A. Steinfeldt (Eds.), APA handbook of sport and exercise psychology, Vol. 1. Sport psychology (pp. 469–488). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000123-024.

Athletic identity and COVID-19

The COVID-19 pandemic had severe repercussions on many aspects of society. One of them was the imposed lockdown that a majority of individuals had to follow. Especially vulnerable were certain groups, among which athletes were salient as they could not perform their sports, in particular team sports. Therefore, with the purpose of investigating the impact of COVID-19, research has been conducted presenting the relationship between mental health and athletic identity during the lockdowns.

In order to study this, it is firstly important to examine the level of importance of the athlete's identity. (Graupensperger et al., 2020). After several studies researched the link between well-being and athletic identity, it has come to the conclusion that a higher degree of athletic identity is related to lower feelings of depression and, consequently, greater mental health (Hagiwara et al., 2021). Furthermore, the results in research from Hagiwara et al. (2021) propose that when student-athletes are highly aware of their social role, the impact of unanticipated disruptions such as the lockdowns resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic, will be less harmful on their mental health.

Furthermore, research on the impact of teammate social support was conducted, in order to study the association to mental health in athletes. Social distancing measures imposed during the COVID-19 pandemic could have difficulted and thus lessen the contact with teammates, which might lead to loneliness and social isolation. However, research from Graupensperger et al. (2020) evidences that athletes who were able to preserve connections with teammates virtually and received more social support, presented better psychological well-being. Respectively, student-athletes who experienced positive interactions with teammates during lockdowns were likely to present higher feelings of identity because of the provoked perception belonging (Cruwys et al., 2013) & (Benson & Bruner, 2018).

As studies from Graupensperger et al. (2020) summarises, it has been detected that teammate social interactions and identity conservation are positively associated and that, correspondently, the conservation of identity leads to greater well-being and lower symptoms of depression.

•  Hagiwara, G., Tsunokawa, T., Iwatsuki, T., Shimozono, H., & Kawazura, T. (2021). Relationships among Student-Athletes’ Identity, Mental Health, and Social Support in Japanese Student-Athletes during the COVID-19 Pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(13), 7032. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18137032

•  Graupensperger, S., Benson, A. J., Kilmer, J. R., & Evans, M. B. (2020). Social (Un)distancing: Teammate Interactions, Athletic Identity, and Mental Health of Student-Athletes During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Journal of Adolescent Health, 67(5), 662–670. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2020.08.001

•  Cruwys, T., Dingle, G. A., Haslam, C., Haslam, S. A., Jetten, J., & Morton, T. A. (2013). Social group memberships protect against future depression, alleviate depression symptoms and prevent depression relapse. Social Science & Medicine, 98, 179–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.09.013

•  Benson, A. J., & Bruner, M. W. (2018). How teammate behaviors relate to athlete affect, cognition, and behaviors: A daily diary approach within youth sport. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 34, 119–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2017.10.008

Retirement

Retirement from sports is often closely followed by a complete conversion of lifestyle spanning from changes in social circle to eating habits to identity (3). Due to their profession, athletes do not always have control over when and why they retire. Strong Athletic identity during retirement has shown to induce mental illnesses, like depression and anxiety (1), but also difficulties in adjusting to life after sport (2). Those that retire involuntarily seem to show a higher athletic identity during retirement than those that actively choose (3). This might be due to a lack of an adjustment period, where one can prepare for a life without sports. Thus, voluntariness appears to be an important indicator for the decrease in athletic identity, which translates into a smoother retirement (4). Athletes that pursue other activities next to their career might have more diverse personalities, which allows them to transition easier into retirement or even a new career. Those also show better performance at their sport (3).

1.    Alfermann, D., Stambulova, N., & Zemaityte, A. (2004). Reactions to sport career termination: a cross-national comparison of German, Lithuanian, and Russian athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 5(1), 61–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1469-0292(02)00050-x

2.    Lavallee, D., Grove, J. R., & Gordon, S. (1997). The causes of career termination from sport and their relationship to post-retirement adjustment among elite-amateur athletes in Australia. Australian Psychologist, 32(2), 131–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/00050069708257366

3.    Martin, L. A., Fogarty, G. J., & Albion, M. J. (2013). Changes in Athletic Identity and Life Satisfaction of Elite Athletes as a Function of Retirement Status. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 26(1), 96–110. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2013.798371

4.    Cecić Erpič, S., Wylleman, P., & Zupančič, M. (2004). The effect of athletic and non-athletic factors on the sports career termination process. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 5(1), 45–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1469-0292(02)00046-8

Athletes that score high on athletic identity are usually less prepared for retirement (Gordon, 1995; Lavallee, Gordon, et Al., 1997; Pearson & Petitpas, 1990). Whereas athletes that They are also more often involved in pursuits during their career. prepared for a second career, due to the. This in turn predicts a more. Conversely, athletes do not always have control over how and when their retirement begins, due to reasons like injury. Moreover, successful athletes show higher athletic identification and fewer less preparation for retirement.

Retirement is the end of an athlete's career. There are a variety of reasons for an athlete to reach this point. Causes of retirement are categorized into voluntary/normative or involuntary/non-normative. The degree to which athletes have influence on their own retirement seems to have influence on how they

Retiring athletes often show a decrease in athletic identity (Grove et al., 2004; Lavallee, Gordon, et Al., 1997; Shachar et al., 2004).

Additionally, the profession is unique in a way that it is often started and ended at a young age, compared to other professions, making a second career very likely.

Retirement is the end of an athlete's career. There are a variety of reasons for an athlete to reach this point. Causes are mediated by the fact that the profession is built upon physical competition (usually starting from a young age), performance under highly stressful situations and a young demographic. Thus, the decision is not always made by the person themselves. This is especially the case in popular sports with an above average risk factor for injury and high-level of competition (e.g., Mixed Martial Arts (MMA), American Football, or Soccer). The cause for retirement was shown to have an impact on how it is experienced.

Treatment of athletic identity loss

Given that losing the athletic identity can result in severe mental health problems (6), treatment methods of identity restoration are of importance. Depending on the time passed since the incident causing the athletic identity loss, severity of impairment and the age of persons affected, different approaches of treatment have been proposed.

The interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) (hyperlink) was found to be a promising treatment method which focuses on interpersonal relations and conflicts, discussion of feelings of loss and grief and role transitions. The relational focus of IPT is especially helpful for athletes playing in a team, as leaving the sport can lead to a huge loss of friendships. IPT is suitable for college athletes as it is short-termed and fits into a busy schedule. It accentuates the present instead of the past life of the patient (2).

Where applicable, for example in school contexts, sport psychologists and counsellors working preventive to prepare athletes for a life after their sports career can ease the later process of transitioning (5). Prevention can take the form of presenting possible identities outside the sports context as in formulating alternative career goals (4, 5). Psychological flexibility is a supportive factor in this case (6). There is the possibility that people affected turn even more exclusively to their athletic identity when confronted with a thread to it (1).

Others suggest upholding the athletic identity after retirement or injury instead of declaring it as the termination of an old life. This strategy can be seen in former athletes taking over coaching roles as a form of compromise, though this remains to be a controversial strategy (3).

Talking about emotional distress caused by the temporal or terminal end of the athletic career seems to be beneficial in any case (5).

1.    Benson, A. J., Evans, M. B., Surya, M., Martin, L. J., & Eys, M. A. (2015). Embracing athletic identity in the face of threat. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 4(4), 303–315. https://doi.org/10.1037/spy0000045

2.    Heird, E. B., & Steinfeldt, J. A. (2013). An Interpersonal Psychotherapy Approach to Counseling Student Athletes: Clinical Implications of Athletic Identity. Journal of College Counseling, 16(2), 143–157. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1882.2013.00033.x

3.    Blackett, A. D., Evans, A. B., & Piggott, D. (2020). Negotiating a coach identity: a theoretical critique of elite athletes’ transitions into post-athletic high-performance coaching roles. Sport, Education and Society, 26(6), 663–675. https://doi.org/10.1080/13573322.2020.1787371

4.    Hickey, C., & Roderick, M. (2017). The Presentation of Possible Selves in Everyday Life: The Management of Identity Among Transitioning Professional Athletes. Sociology of Sport Journal, 34(3), 270–280. https://doi.org/10.1123/ssj.2017-0018

5.    Menke, D. J., & Germany, M. L. (2018). Reconstructing Athletic Identity: College Athletes and Sport Retirement. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 24(1), 17–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2018.1522475

6.    Chang, W. H., Wu, C. H., Kuo, C. C., & Chen, L. H. (2018). The role of athletic identity in the development of athlete burnout: The moderating role of psychological flexibility. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 39, 45–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.07.014