User:SSEA333/Maqama

In case anyone is peer reviewing -- all BOLD text is original unchanged text from the article

Revised Lead
The maqāma (Arabic: مقامة [maˈqaːma], literally "assembly"; plural maqāmāt, مقامات [maqaːˈmaːt]) is an (originally) Arabic prosimetric literary genre of picaresque short stories originating in the tenth century C.E. . The maqāmāt are anecdotes told by a fictitious narrator which typically follow the escapades of a roguish protagonist as the two repeatedly encounter each other in their travels. The genre is known for its literary and rhetorical complexity, as well as its alternating use of rhymed verse with a form of Arabic rhymed prose known as saj’. The two most well-known authors within the genre are Badī' al-Zaman al-Hamadhāni, one of its earliest exponents, and al-Harīrī of Basra, whose maqāmāt is commonly held responsible for the genre's rise in popularity from the eleventh century onward. Interest in al-Hariri's Maqāmāt spread throughout much of the Islamic Empire, with translations and original works appearing in Hebrew, Syriac and Persian. Many authors still contribute to and draw inspiration from the literary genre of Maqāmāt to this day.

Professionally illustrated and calligraphed manuscripts were produced for private use. Of these manuscripts, only 11 surviving copies are known to exist; all of them are of al-Harīrī's Maqāmāt, and none are from before the thirteenth century C.E. These illustrations tend to be colored linework on a white background; they often depict the narrator and protagonist's escapades together, and so most of these compositions (unlike much of medieval Islamic Art) primarily feature human figures with notably expressive faces and gestures [george -- shadow play]. The illustrated manuscripts made extensive use of captions, likely added after the manuscripts' completion to provide key context to the illustration or to provide information that could not be gleaned from the illustration alone [o'kane]. Art found in the illustrations of al-Harīrī's Maqāmāt appear to include borrowed visual motifs from medieval Christian and Judaic art as well as references to architecture found within the Islamic empire [grabar 'what does arab painting mean']. In addition, the illustrations tend to share formal qualities with the art of shadow play[roxburgh].

Narrative Structure
The maqāma are typically understood to be short picaresques told by a fictitious narrator about a low-class trickster protagonist who uses disguises, refined language and sophisticated rhetoric to swindle onlookers out of their money. In the case of the Maqāmāt al-Hariri, the same narrator al-Harīth tells of his numerous encounters with the roguish protagonist Abu Zayd, in various cities and under varying circumstances. The maqāmāt are known for their use of badi’ (ornate linguistic style) interspersed with saj’ (rhyming prose). Like much Arabic literature of its time, the maqāmāt also typically blended serious or genuine narratives and tone (jidd) with humor and jest (hazl). Many scholars propose that the events and characters within the maqāmāt are primarily vehicles through which the author can showcase his own literary, poetic and rhetorical skills.

There have been attempts to schematize loose plot outlines for the maqāmāt. J. Hämeen-Anttila puts forth the following pattern for a typical maqāma:"Isnad → General Introduction → Link → Episode Proper → Recognition Scene → Envoi (→ Finale)"Alain Qian expands on this structure somewhat. The isnad  (citation or “backing” used to verify the legitimacy of a statement, most commonly used in verifying hadith) lends a sense of credibility to the narrator, even if he is known to be fictional. In the general introduction the narrator tells the audience where he was and/or what he was doing in the city in question, providing context for the anecdote to follow. The link transitions from general introduction into the episode proper, where the events of the anecdote are relayed. After a time in the anecdote itself, the narrator and the audience (those of whom that are familiar with the genre) both recognize the protagonist of the anecdote as the recurring roguish character. After this recognition scene the maqāma is ended with envoi (summation in verse), followed occasionally by a finale in which the narrator and protagonist part ways.

A different schema for Maqāmāt al-Harīrī has been proposed by K. Okazaki, similar to Anttila’s except for its mirror-like structure: "“Arrival of the narrator in town → Encounter with the protagonist → Speech (poetry) → Reward → Recognition ← Reproach ← Justification (Poetry) ← Parting'"In this proposed schema the arrows do not indicate chronology but rather the rise and fall of narrative suspense (in a manner not unlike Gustav Freytag’s plot pyramid). The proposed structure illustrates that the narrator arrives in a city and comes across the protagonist, often drawn to them by their eloquent speech and poor dress. The protagonist is often employing this speech to the end of asking for money or other aid. After he receives his reward, the narrator sees through the protagonist’s disguise and recognizes him as the recurring protagonist Abu Zayd, then tells Abu Zayd off for his continual abuse of others’ good faith and charity. Abu Zayd justifies his actions in verse and the two part ways.

Origins and Development
Maqāma arose in the tenth century CE from the Arabic genre of prose known as adab (referring to “culture”, “manners”, “belles lettres”). There is some debate as to the precise origins of the genre. While it has generally been accepted that the genre was first established with the publication of Badī' al-Zaman al-Hamadhāni's Maqāmāt in the tenth century, there are some scholars that credit Ahmad Ibn al-Farsi (d. 383/1004) as the originator of the maqāmāt and al-Hamadhānī’s predecessor , and others who credit the even earlier author Ibn Duraid (d. 933).

Al-Hamadhānī drew much of his inspiration from compilations of anecdotes such as those collected by al-Taniikhi, and may have found the prototype for his roguish and eloquent protagonist in the work of al-Jahiz (d. 869). There are two significant departures from works such as these that al-Hamadhānī is commonly credited for originating. First is his use of saj’ throughout an anecdote, including the narrative itself. Saj’ is an ornate form of rhyming prose interspersed with full verse, the use of which had thus far been restricted to religious and political works. This claim has been contested, with some evidence that the use of saj’ throughout a narrative was not unique to al-Hamadhānī’s maqāmāt at the time of their writing. The second literary innovation al-Hamadhānī is credited for is the fact that unlike most works from his time or before it, al-Hamadhānī’s maqāmāt are openly fictitious (rather than covertly fictitious or openly non-fictitious).

Al-Hamadhānī’s work was followed shortly thereafter by a collection of ten maqāmāt by literatus Ibn Nāqiyā (d.1092) , though the genre would only gain most of its popularity after the 'creation of Maqāmāt al-Harīrī'', a century after al-Hamadhānī’s work had been created. The popularity of al-Harīrī’s maqāmāt is such that they were worthy of memorization, recitation, and scholarly criticism during his lifetime''', and he has been the most well-known author in the genre for most of its history. 'The genre spread to the east, with maqāmāt'' appearing in Persian, Hebrew and Syriac. Maqāmāt also appeared to the west in al-Andalus (now Andalusia, Spain), courtesy of a small group' of Andalusian poets who reported that after hearing al-Harīrī himself recite his own work in his Baghdad garden, they chose to recite the maqāma'' to those in al-Andalus who had not attended.

Despite the genre’s geographical reach, interest in the maqāma was confined to a relatively small population of wealthy literary scholars . These literati would attend small private recitations of al-Harīrī’s maqāmāt, during which improvisations and embellishments were made as the reader or audience saw fit. The maqāmāt were also produced in professionally-calligraphed and illustrated manuscripts. These were likely made for private consumption for individuals or small groups, as the ownership of representational images was commonly frowned upon in Islamic tradition. To art historians’ knowledge, only eleven illustrated manuscripts of the maqāmāt survive today, with none of them having been made before the 13th century.

Etymology
The meaning and original use of the word “maqāma” to describe the literary genre are the subject of some scholarly debate. Al-Hamadhānī referred to his anecdotes as “maqāma” in a letter written as early as the year 922 C.E. Amina Shah writes in her introduction to The Assemblies of Al-Harīrī that the word maqāma may be taken to mean “a place where one stands upright”, “the persons assembled at any place”, or “the discourses delivered or conversations held in any such assembly”. Qian wrote that, at the time that al-Hamadhānī wrote and compiled his Maqāmāt, the term maqāma and its common substitutes could be used to denote an assembly, a heroic boast, or a religious or moralizing sermon, among other meanings. The word maqāma or maqām (used interchangeably at this time) were often used in explaining eloquence and speech appropriate for particular situations. Given this historical context, Qian proposes that al-Hamadhānī may have intended a moralistic or religious meaning in his use of the word maqāma to describe his work ; however, the word has since come to exclusively refer to the literary genre, and conversations like those one might find within its works.

Beyond its historical context, there has been some discussion of the word maqāma as it refers to the genre. K. Okazaki wrote that the word maqāma as “assembly” is meant to reflect the assemblages of characters within the narrative witnessing the acts committed and subsequent trials faced by the roguish protagonist. Alain George argues that this reflection is two-fold. By his assertion, not only does “assembly” refer to the characters within the narrative, but it also refers to the small audiences of elite scholars who, according to George, would attend private readings of al-Harīrī’s Maqāmāt.

Modern Applications
Maqāma as a genre has continued to exist and be contributed to since its inception. Mohamed Salah-Omri argues that for the modern Arabic writer, composing maqāmāt or works similar to them may serve as a way of defying Western literary forms and expectations (such as the European novel) and legitimizing their own Arabic identities and that of their reader by appealing to a shared literary history. This process, he argues, would have been especially important in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries as modern Arabic states and national identities began to form as a result of or reaction to European colonialism. Some authors may choose to follow the literary tradition of the genre as closely as possible, while others make use of only some of the features of classical maqāma, to different ends such as parody, entertainment, or colloquialization of the genre. Omri lists the following modern examples of maqāma:

In addition to these, many works of modern Arabic literature may only vaguely refer to maqāma or use its narrative structure as a framing device for translations of other works.
 * Majama’ al-Bahrayn, (1856) collection by al-Yaziji (d. 1871)
 * Hadith Issa ibn hisham (1901) by Muhammad al-Muwahili
 * Al-Saq ‘ala al-Saq (1855) by Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq (d. 1887)
 * Maqāmāt Bayram al-Tunisi (d. 1961)