User:SaltedSturgeon/sandbox/Expeditions of Samuel Hearne

The expeditions of Samuel Hearne in 1769–1772 were a series of three European expeditions in Northern Canada that sought to discover and chart the Coppermine River, whose basin was rumored to contain an abundance of copper deposits. The expeditions were led by English explorer Samuel Hearne and commissioned by the Hudson's Bay Company.

Moses Norton, chief factor of Prince of Wales Fort, had endeavored to discover the Coppermine River since 1767, when local Inuit began arriving at the fort bearing copper tools. After consulting the Company's Committee in London, 24-year-old Samuel Hearne was appointed to lead this enterprise. After departing Prince of Wales Fort in the winter of 1769, the first attempt was quickly met with failure as Hearne lost the confidence of his Indian guides and struggled to procure sustenance in Canada's Barren Grounds. Hearne's second attempt, beginning in February 1770, lasted longer than the first, but constant starvation and the breaking of his quadrant forced him to turn back again after five months.

Hearne embarked on his third attempt in December 1770, only after acquiring a more trustworthy guide. After an extensive trek across completely unknown lands, Hearne discovered the Coppermine River in July 1771. Its putative riches were found to be completely exaggerated, and after witnessing the Bloody Falls Massacre, Hearne turned back for Fort Prince of Wales empty-handed. During the year-long return journey, he became the first European to transit Great Slave Lake.

Upon his return, Hearne's efforts were not widely recognized, and his expeditions faced controversy from some of his contemporaries. Nevertheless, his mapping of a significant portion of the Arctic interior and discovery of the absence of an internal Northwest Passage were of significant geographic note. Hearne's account of the expeditions was posthumously published in 1795.

Background
Beginning in the early 1650s, French explorers Médard des Groseilliers and Pierre-Esprit Radisson returned from expeditions in the remote interior of North America carrying cargoes of beaver pelts said to be worth "14 to 15 thousand livres". Over several years, they had acquired enough pelts to save New France from financial ruin and discovered a larger portion of North America than any other explorers combined. They were then repeatedly exploited by the French government, eventually leading the explorers to seek employment with the British Crown. After several years of fundraising, in 1668, a small fleet of two ships sailed into Hudson Bay and established a fort at the mouth of the Rupert River in modern-day Quebec. The success of this establishment prompted the Crown to incorporate the Company and grant them a monopoly on the entire basin of the bay.

The Company's main purpose was to make profit from the lucrative fur trade. Secondary to this goal was the exploration of the then-unknown region of Rupert's Land, mostly by way of the many rivers that empty into the bay. Continual hostilities from the French, in addition to a lack of knowledge of the country, meant that only one inland post, Henley House, would be established in the first century of the Company's existence.

In the early 18th century, rumors began circulating of a large river emptying into the Arctic Ocean whose periphery was abounding with copper veins. Early explorers of the region had given reports of Inuit carrying copper ore. These rumors were corroborated when Inuit visitors at Fort Prince of Wales spoke of the river and exhibited crudely-made copper implements. These reports, combined with the continual desire to discover the Northwest Passage, spurred the Company to send several expeditions to the northward in the early 18th century. The most significant of these began in 1719. Led by James Knight and comprising two ships, Albany and Discovery, the expedition ended in disaster when the vessels were shipwrecked on Marble Island in Hudson Bay and the entire party died of starvation and disease.

Further interest in the discovery of the "Far-Off Metal River" was renewed in 1768 when a group of Indians arrived at Fort Prince of Wales carrying a quantity of copper ore, arousing the interests of the fort's chief factor, Moses Norton. Norton subsequently sailed to England, consulted the Company's directors in London, and obtained permission to send an expedition in search of the river.

Preparations
Norton's first choice to lead the expedition was Samuel Hearne. Born in 1745 in London, Hearne joined the Royal Navy at the age of 11 and saw action in the Seven Year's War. By 1766, he was employed on an HBC sloop and gained considerable experience in navigation and surveying while overwintering at Fort Prince of Wales. Hearne also had a reputation for his physical fitness and snowshoeing abilities, and in 1768 had surveyed large areas of the bay's coastline.

Hearne received his official instructions in November 1769. Accompanied by Indian guides, he was to trek overland to the Coppermine River, ideally reaching it in the summer of 1770. There, he would ascertain the latitudes and longitudes of its major features, determine its navigability, and assess the probability of a settlement one day being established on its banks. Norton also stressed to Hearne the importance of establishing contact with the area's inhabitants and encouraging them to trade with the HBC. Hearne was also encouraged to gain further insight on whether or not the putative Northwest Passage existed somewhere in the continent's north.

In preparation for his voyage, Hearne carried only a small amount of equipment. His supplies amounted to some ammunition, various iron tools, tobacco, several knives, and other outdoor equipment. For a voyage expected to last upwards of two years, he carried only a single change of clothes and a blanket. With the expedition set to begin in early winter, Hearne carried no canoes, and was expected to either hunt or trap most of his food en route.

False start
Hearne's first expedition departed Prince of Wales Fort on 6 November 1769. The party was composed of Hearne, four Indians, and two European laborers named Isbester and Merriman.

Soon after the expedition began, the frigid winter climate and lack of provisions caused the party to encounter serious difficulty. The guides deliberately kept the party north of the treeline, and the resulting lack of firewood meant that Hearne and his companions were forced to dig holes in the snow to shelter themselves from the cold. On the second day, one of the guides deserted Hearne. Shortly thereafter, the party's chief navigator, an Indian named Chawchinahaw, grew increasingly trepidatious about pressing onwards. As Hearne wrote, Chawchinahaw "had not the prosperity of the undertaking at heart; he often painted the difficulties in the worst colours, took every method to dishearten me and my European companions, and several times hinted his desire of our returning back to the factory".

In the night of 29 November, the rest of the Indians deserted Hearne and the Europeans, with Chawchinahaw leaving shortly thereafter. The Europeans' sleighs had been plundered and much of their equipment had been stolen. Hearne and his companions were then left in an unknown country, 320 km from the nearest settlement, suffering greatly from hunger and having expended all their ammunition.

Sustaining themselves by snaring partridges, the expeditionaries pushed southwards They returned to the fort on 11 December, having been absent for one month and six days.

Second attempt
Norton, who had placed great faith in Chawchinahaw's abilities, was surprised at Hearne's return. Nevertheless, both Hearne and Norton began planning a second expedition. In spite of Isbester's desire to accompany him again, Hearne decided not to take any European companions on his second voyage. He set out from the fort on 23 February 1770, less than three months after his return. When Hearne began his previous voyage, he was seen off by cannonfire from the fort; at the time of his February departure, however, the fort's guns were buried in snowdrifts 6 m deep.

The expeditionaries initially found no difficulty hunting deer, but the temperamental weather frequently forced them to halt for several days at a time. Several weeks of west-northwest travel soon took Hearne and his companions to the Barren Grounds—a vast region of remote tundra dotted with lakes and rivers. With the arrival of June came the spring thaw, which made movement with snowshoes and sleighs virtually impossible. The expeditionaries were then forced to carry their 27 kg loads on their backs, which Hearne found particularly difficult, writing that "the awkwardness of my load, added to its great weight, which was upward of sixty pounds, and the excessive heat of the weather, rendered walking the most laborious task I had ever encountered."

As the party pressed further into the barren lands, food became scarcer and conditions worsened. Their tent was useless from a lack of trees to make poles, and due to the absence of firewood, any food that was caught was eaten raw. Hearne pressed on, in one case walking 32 km a day for four days with virtually no sustenance except for water and tobacco.

Summer
As summer began to arrive, the party was able to find more food, and they were soon joined by a large number of wandering Indians. Again, Hearne's guides began to grow increasingly hesitant to press on, preferring the company of