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Introduction to Packaging '1.0 INTRODUCTION In today's society, packaging is pervasive and essential. It surrounds, enhances and protects the goods we buy, from processing and manufacturing through handling and storage to the final consumer. Without packaging, materials handling would be a messy, inefficient and costly exercise, and modern consumer marketing would be virtually impossible. The historical development of packaging has been well documented elsewhere and will only be touched upon here. Suffice it to say that the highly sophisticated packaging industries which characterize modern society today are far removed from the simple packaging activities of earlier times. Packaging lies at the very heart of the modern industry, and successful packaging technologists must bring to their professional duties a wide-ranging background drawn from a multitude of disciplines. Efficient packaging is a necessity for almost every type of product whether it is mined, grown, hunted, extracted or manufactured. It is an essential link between the product makers and their customers. Unless the packaging operation is performed correctly, the reputation of the product will suffer and the goodwill of the customer will be lost. All the skill, quality and reliability built into the product during development and production will be wasted, unless care is taken to see that it reaches the user in the correct condition. Properly designed packaging is the main way of ensuring safe delivery to the final user in good condition at an economical cost.' '1.1 Definitions Despite the importance and key role which packaging plays, it is often regarded as a necessary evil or an unnecessary cost. Furthermore, in the view of many consumers packaging is, at best, somewhat superfluous, and, at worst, a serious waste of resources Section 16        Page 2' 'and an environmental menace. Such a viewpoint arises because the functions which packaging has to perform are either unknown or not considered in full. By the time most consumers come into contact with a package, its job in many cases is almost over, and it is perhaps understandable that the view that excessive packaging has been used has gained some credence. Packaging has been defined in a number of ways. A populist reference source defines packaging as: • an industrial and marketing technique for containing, protecting, identifying and facilitating the sale and distribution of agricultural, industrial and consumer products. The Packaging Institute International defines packaging as: • the enclosure of products, items or packages in a wrapped pouch, bag, box, cup, tray, can, tube, bottle or other container form to perform one or more of the following functions: containment; protection and/or preservation; communications; and utility or performance. If the device or container performs one or more of these functions it is considered a package. The UK Institute of Packaging provides three definitions of packaging: a. a coordinated system of preparing goods for transport, distribution, storage, retailing and end-use; b. a means of ensuring safe delivery to the ultimate consumer in sound condition at minimum cost; c. a techno-economic function aimed at minimizing costs of delivery while maximizing sales (and hence profits). It is important to distinguish between packaging as defined above, and packing which can be defined as the enclosing of an individual item (or several items) in a container, usually for shipping or delivery.' Section 16        Page 3 '1.2 World Packaging Market Figure 1. World Packaging Market by country in 1998 The top 18 Packaging Companies in the world are set out in table 1, based on turnover for the year 1998.' Table 1: The top 18 packaging companies throughout the world as in 1998 Company                            US$million 1. Crown Cork & Seal                 8,300.0 2. Smurfit - Stone Containers        7,624.0 3. Tetra Pak                         7,590.0 4. Owens - Illinois                  5,692.0 5. International Paper               4,970.0 6. Tenneco                           4,459.0 7. Pechiney International            4,325.0 8. Saint Gobain                      3,797.8 9. Toyo Sieken Kaisha                3,658.9 10. Jefferson Smurfit Group          3,624.1 11. Alcoa                            3,370.0 12. Ball                             3,305.3 13. Amcor                            3,187.2 14. Rexam                            3,000.0 15. Alcan                            2,750.0 16. AssiDoman                        2,719.0 17. Sealed Air/Cryovac               2,719.5 18. Sonoco Products                  2,557.9 'Western Europe 28% Australasia 1% Latin America 7% Eastern Europe 3% Middle East 5% Japan 16% North America 27% Asia-Pacific 13% Section 16        Page 4' The composition of the Australian market by material is set out in Figure 2 and the New Zealand Market is similar (see Table 2). 'Figure 2. Australian packaging market by material in 1998' '

Table 2: New Zealand Packaging Production for 1996 (Robertson & Webber, 1999)' Material Production Percentage tonnes Aluminium 1.5% 9770 Glass 15.1% 96094 Paper 60.1% 382711 Plastic 18.4% 117000 Steel 4.9% 31160 Total   636735 'Metal 20% Plastics 29% Glass 11% Other 4% Paper & Board 36% Section 16        Page 5' '2.0 PACKAGING DEVELOPMENT 2.1 Early Packaging (An excellent reference covering the History of Packaging Development is Hine, 1995) Examples of early packaging include flex woven baskets, leaves, gourds, wooden barrel, pottery containers and glass. Glass packaging has a very long history but early types of glass packaging were very expensive and very rare form of packaging.' 'Figure 3. A modern example of early types of packaging using bamboo, straw and paper used to package mangos.'   '

2.2 Nineteenth Century Packaging Development The 19th Century from 1800 – 1900 was a period of rapid development of packaging systems with the appearance of: • metal cans (1818) • paper bag (1850s) • folding paperboard carton (1880s) • Corrugated paperboard case (1890s) • Tubes (eg toothpaste tubes) • Milk Bottles ( 1860s)' Section 16        Page 6 'Fruit and vegetables continue for the most part to be unpackaged and if any was shipped they would be in wooden boxes. The use of wooden boxes for packaging and shipping horticultural products continued until the end of the 20th century. Wooden boxes were phased out in NZ with the development of strong and cheap corrugated cases and then finally by the use of reusable plastic crates.' '3.0 FUNCTIONS OF PACKAGING Although the definitions given above cover in essence the basic role and form of packaging, it is necessary to discuss in more detail the functions of packaging and the environments where the package must perform those functions.' '3.1 Containment This function of packaging is so obvious as to be overlooked by many, but it is probably the basic function of packaging. With the exception of large, discrete products, all other products must be contained before they can be moved from one place to another. The "package", whether it be a milk bottle or a bulk cement rail wagon, must contain the product to function successfully. Without containment, pollution could become widespread. The containment function of packaging makes a huge contribution to protecting the environment from the myriad of products, which are moved from one place to another on numerous occasions each day in any modern society. Faulty packaging (or under packaging) could result in major pollution of the environment. A study of packaging systems in China (Packaging Today – Australia 1979) found that: • 17.5% of the country’s cement is lost in transit • 50% of grain Section 16        Page 7' '• 20% of all glass is damaged before it can be used • 40% of microscopes are broken before reaching the buyer. While in North America, Northern Europe and Australasia only 2% - 3% of food is lost through spoilage, in developing countries food spoilage and damage is estimated to be between 30 to 50% of production. This is supported by information from Russia from the 1970s and 1980s, where a lack of packaging, distribution and storage facilities resulted in annual losses of: • 45% of fresh vegetables • 55% of fresh fruit • 70% of potatoes • 50% of grain • one million tons of meat • one and a half million ton of fish A study by Harvey Alter of US Chamber of Commerce provides strong evidence that packaging saves waste. It shows that there is a strong relationship between the amount of packaging waste and the amount of food waste in municipal solid waste (MSW) worldwide: as the amount of packaging increased, the amount of food waste is decreased. Note this could also be partly accounted for by the high use of refrigerators in the countries that have high packaging waste figures.' '3.2 Protection This is often regarded as the primary function of the package: to protect its contents from outside environmental effects, be they water, moisture vapour, gases, odours, microorganisms, dust, shocks, vibrations, compressive forces, etc., and to protect the environment from the product. Section 16        Page 8' 'This is especially important for those products such as toxic chemicals which may seriously damage the environment. In the case of the majority of food products, the protection afforded by the package is an essential part of the preservation process. For example, aseptically packaged milk and fruit juices in cartons only remain aseptic for as long as the package provides protection; vacuum-packaged meat will not achieve its desired shelf life if the package permits oxygen to enter. In general, once the integrity of the package is breached, the product is no longer preserved. Packaging also protects or conserves much of the energy expended during the production and processing of the product. For example, to produce, transport, sell and store 1 kg of bread requires 15.8 megajoules (MJ) of energy. This energy is required in the form of transport fuel, heat, power and refrigeration in farming and milling the wheat, baking and retailing the bread, and in distributing both the raw materials and the finished product. To produce the polyethylene bag to package a 1 kg loaf of bread requires 1.4 MJ of energy. This means that each unit of energy in the packaging protects eleven units of energy in the product. While eliminating the packaging might save 1.4 MJ of energy, it would also lead to spoilage of the bread and a consequent loss of 15.8 MJ of energy. Since the 1980's consumer demand for tamper-evident packaging has increased. In 1982 six people died from cyanide in the US following the malicious tampering of Tylenol painkiller capsules. The UK baby food market suffered a dramatic downturn in 1990 after a series of tampering incidents involving glass deliberately added to the baby food containers. Along with requirements for child-resistant closures on pharmaceutical and house hold chemicals, the need for tamper-evident features is necessarily increasing the complexity of packaging and hence its protection features.' '3.3 Convenience Modern industrialized societies have brought about tremendous changes in life styles and the packaging industry has had to respond to those changes. One of the major changes has been in the nature of the family and the role Section 16        Page 9' 'of women. Now an ever-increasing number of households are single-person; many couples either delay having children or opt not to at all; there is a greater percentage than ever before of women in the work force. All these changes, as well as other factors such as the trend towards "grazing" (i.e. eating snack type meals frequently but on-the-run rather than regular meals), the demand for a wide variety of food and drink at outdoor functions such as sports events, and increased leisure time, have created a demand for greater convenience in household products: foods which are pre-prepared and can be cooked or reheated in a very short time, preferably without removing them from their primary package; condiments that can be applied simply through aerosol or pump action packages; dispensers for sauces or dressings which minimize mess, etc. Thus packaging plays an important role in allowing products to be used conveniently. Two other aspects of convenience are important in package design. One of these can best be described as the apportionment function of packaging. In this context, the package functions by reducing the output from industrial production to a manageable, desirable "consumer" size. Thus a vat of wine is "apportioned" by filling into bottles; a churn of butter is "apportioned" by packaging into 10 gram minipats and minitubs; a batch of ice cream is "apportioned" by filling into 2 litre plastic tubs. Put simply, the large scale production of products which characterizes a modern society could not succeed without the apportionment function of packaging. The relative cheapness of consumer products is largely because of their production on an enormous scale and the associated savings which result. But as the scale of production has increased, so too has the need for effective methods of apportioning the product into consumer-sized dimensions. An associated aspect is the shape (relative proportions) of the primary package in relation to convenience in use by consumers (e.g. easy to hold, open and pour as appropriate) and efficiency in building into secondary and tertiary packages. In the movement of packaged goods in interstate and international trade, it is clearly inefficient to handle each primary package individually. Here packaging plays another very important role in permitting primary packages to be unitized into secondary packages (e.g. placed inside a corrugated case) and then for these secondary packages to be unitized into a tertiary package (e.g. a stretch-wrapped pallet). This unitizing activity can Section 16        Page 10' 'be carried a further stage to produce a quaternary package (e.g. a container which is loaded with several pallets). If the dimensions of the primary and secondary packages are optimal, then the maximum space available on the pallet can be used. As a consequence of this unitizing function, materials handling is optimized since only a minimal number of discrete packages or loads need to be handled.' '3.4 Communication There is an old saying that "a package must protect what it sells and sell what it protects". It may be old, but it is still true; a package functions as a "silent salesman". The modern methods of consumer marketing would fail were it not for the messages communicated by the package. The ability of consumers to instantly recognize products through distinctive branding and labelling enables supermarkets to function on a self-service basis. Without this communication function (i.e. if there were only plain packs and standard package sizes), the weekly shopping expedition to the supermarket would become a lengthy, frustrating nightmare as consumers attempted to make purchasing decisions without the numerous clues provided by the graphics and the distinctive shapes of the packaging. Other communication functions of the package are equally important. Today the widespread use of modern scanning equipment at retail checkouts relies on all packages displaying a Universal Product Code (UPC) that can be read accurately and rapidly. Nutritional information on the outside of food packages has becomes mandatory in many countries. But it is not only in the supermarket that the communication function of packaging is important. Warehouses and distribution centres would (and sometimes do) become very inefficient and uncontrolled if secondary and tertiary packages lacked labels or carried incomplete details. UPCs are also frequently used in warehouses where hand-held barcode readers linked to a computer make stock-taking quick and efficient. When international trade is involved and different languages are spoken, the use of unambiguous, readily understood symbols on the package is imperative. Section 16        Page 11' 'When items of high value are transported the secondary and tertiary packaging may contain deliberate misinformation with only the UPC providing the correct information. The cosmetic industry use this regularly, where there is not even an easily recognised company name, in an attempt to reduce pilfering.' '3.5 Exercise Investigate and compare the functions of packaging with regard to packaging of a soft summer fruit with a fruit like kiwifruit or apples' '4.0 PACKAGE ENVIRONMENTS The packaging has to perform its functions in three different environments. Failure to consider all three environments during package development will result in poorly designed packages, increased costs, consumer complaints and even avoidance or rejection of the product by the customer.' '4.1 Physical Environment This is the environment in which physical damage can be caused to the product. It includes shocks from drops, falls and bumps; damage from vibration arising from transportation modes including road, rail, sea and air; and compression and crushing damage arising from stacking in warehouses and during transportation, or in the home environment.' '4.2 Ambient Environment This is the environment which surrounds the package. Damage to the product can be caused as a result of gases (particularly oxygen), water and water vapour, light (particularly UV radiation), and the effects of heat and cold, as well as micro- and macro-organisms which are ubiquitous in many warehouses and retail outlets. Contaminants in the ambient environment Section 16        Page 12' such as exhaust fumes from automobiles and dust and dirt can also find their way into the product unless the package acts as an effective barrier. '4.3 Human Environment This is the environment in which the package interacts with people, and designing packages for this environment requires a knowledge of the vision and strength capabilities and limitations of humans, as well as legislative and regulatory requirements. Since one of the functions of the package is to communicate, it is important that the messages are received clearly by consumers. In addition, the package must contain information required by law such as product description and nett weight. To maximize its convenience functions, the package should be simple to hold, open and use by the consumer. For a product which is not totally consumed when the package is first opened, the package should be able to be resealed and retain the quality of the product until completely used. Furthermore, the package should contain a portion size which is also convenient for the intended consumers; a package which contained too much product that deteriorated before being completely consumed clearly contains too large a portion.' '4.4 Exercise Determine the environments that packaged vegetable products will have to operate in and discuss the impact these may have on the type of packaging you would choose.' '5.0 THE FUNCTIONS ENVIRONMENTS GRID The functions of packaging and the environments where the package has to perform can be laid out in a two way matrix or grid as shown in Figure 4. Anything that is done in packaging can be classified and located in one or more of the function environment intersects. Section 16        Page 13' 'The grid provides a methodical yet simple way of evaluating the suitability of a particular package design before it is actually adopted and put into use. As well, the grid serves as a useful aid when evaluating existing packaging. Separate grids can be laid out for distribution package analysis, for corrugated package analysis, for legal/regulatory impact, or for any mix of package related concepts that is of interest. ENVIRONMENTS FUNCTIONS' 'Physical Ambient Human Communication'   '

Convenience'   '

Protection'   '

Containment'   '

Figure 4. The functions/Environments grid for evaluating package performance' Section 16        Page 14 'Missing from the grid is an opportunity to evaluate the likely environmental impact of the package. This aspect is now becoming so important an element in package design that it should be considered fully in its own right and in addition to the evaluation carried out using the grid shown in Fig. 4 A distinction is usually made between the various "levels" of packaging. • A primary package is one which is in direct contact with the contained product. It provides the initial and usually the major protective barrier. Examples of primary packages includes metal cans, glass bottles, and plastic pouches. It is frequently only the primary package which the consumer purchases at retail outlets. • A secondary package contains a number of primary packages, e.g. a corrugated case. It is the physical distribution carrier and is sometimes designed so that it can be used in retail outlets for the display of primary packages. • A tertiary package is made up of a number of secondary packages, the most common example being a stretch-wrapped pallet of corrugated cases. • A quaternary package is frequently used to facilitate the handling of tertiary packages in interstate and international trade. This is generally a metal container up to 12 m in length which can hold many pallets and is intermodal in nature. That is, it can be transferred to or from ships, trains, and flatbed trucks by cranes. Certain designs are also able to have their temperature, humidity and gas atmosphere controlled and this is necessary in particular situations such as for the transportation of frozen foods or fresh fruits and vegetables. Section 16        Page 15' '6.0 CONCLUSION A knowledge of the functions of packaging and the environments where it has to perform will lead to the optimization of package design and the development of real, cost-effective packaging. Despite the wide number of functions which a package must perform, this book focuses almost exclusively on the protective functions of the package and possible food package interactions in relation to the ambient environment. Package performance in the physical environment is usually considered under the heading of packaging engineering. The communication function of package performance in the human environment is properly the major concern of those with a primary interest in marketing and advertising. For those focusing on the convenience-in-use aspects of packaging, books in the area of consumer ergonomics are the best source of information.' '7.0 REFERENCES Robertson, G.L. 1993:  Food packaging, principles and practice. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York. Lockhart, H.E. 1995:  A paradigm for packaging. Packaging education news, 8, March. Anonymous. 1995: The functions of packaging. Packaging education news, 10, October. Larionov, V.G. 1994:  Packaging personnel training in the C.I.S.  Packaging education news, 3. Warburton, D. 1995:  Personal communication.' '8.0 ADDITIONAL MATERIAL AND READINGS Section 16        Page 16'   Paper, Glass and Metal Packaging Materials Worldwide, as packaging goes up, food waste goes down (after Alter, 1988). Section 16        Page 17 PACKAGING COUNCIL OF NEW ZEALAND (INC.) 2000 MASS BALANCE PACKAGING MATERIAL SUMMARY TABLE 'MATERIALS PRODUCTION (TONNES) CONSUMPTION (TONNES) COLLECTION (TONNES) COLLECTION AS A % OF CONSUMPTION ALUMINIUM 8 035 6 965 3 450 50% GLASS 112 545 120 810 50 265 42% PAPER 429 250 308 770 202 105 65% PLASTICS 107 895 117 475 20 810 18% STEEL 36 985 28 385 10 750 39% TOTAL 694 710 582 405 287 380 49%'