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Hum, (Humska zemlja / ), was a medieval county, as part of Banate and later Kingdom of Bosnia. It was located in the modern-day regions of Podrinje, Herzegovina and southern Dalmatia, today parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Croatia, respectively. In some periods before it became part of Bosnian medieval state, region was divided into several South Slavic principalities, under different names, for the most of the times, maintaining, depending on era, a semi-independent to independent status, with relations with various foreign and neighboring powers (Byzantine Empire, First Bulgarian Empire, Kingdom of Croatia, Principality of Serbia). In some periods was subjected, temporarily or for a longer duration of time, to Kingdom of Hungary, Kingdom of Serbia, and at the end to the Ottoman Empire. The economically and politically most stable period for the region, however, was between 13th and 15th century as part of banate and kingdom of Bosnia.

Etymology
Zachlumia is a derivative of Hum, from Proto-Slavic *xŭlmŭ, borrowed from a Germanic language (cf. Proto-Germanic *hulma-), meaning "Hill". South Slavic Zahumlje is named after the mountain of Hum (za + Hum "behind the Hum"), above Bona, at the mouth of the Buna. The principality is named Zahumlje or Hum in Serbo-Croatian (Serbian Cyrillic: Захумље, Хум). It is Zachlumia in Latin, Хлъмъ in Old Church Slavonic, and Ζαχλούμων χώρα ("land of Zachlumians") in Greek. The names Chelmania, Chulmia and terra de Chelmo appear in later Latin and Italian chronicles.

Geography
De Administrando Imperio described the polity of Zachlumia, likely during the reign of Časlav Klonimirović (r. 927–960): "From Ragusa begins the domain of the Zachloumoi (Ζαχλοῦμοι) and stretches along as far as the river Orontius; and on the side of the coast it is neighbour to the Pagani, but on the side of the mountain country it is neighbour to the Croats on the north and to Serbia at the front ... The Zachloumoi that now live there are Serbs, originating from the time of the prince (archon) who fled to emperor Heraclius ... The land of the Zachloumoi comprise the following cities: Ston (το Σταγνον / to Stagnon), Mokriskik (το Μοκρισκικ), Josli (το Ιοσλε / to Iosle), Galumainik (το Γαλυμαενικ / to Galumaenik), Dobriskik (το Δοβρισκικ / to Dovriskik)"

The Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja (14th or 16th century) described the geography under the rule of the South Slavic rulers, Hum had two major cities: Bona and Hum. The main settlements in Zachlumia were Ston, Ošlje, Dobar, the towns of Mokriskik and Glumainik. The Principality sprang from Dalmatia (Croatia) to the northwest and Pagania to the west; to the mountain of Kalinovik and the Field of Gatak, where it bordered Travunia. The most eastern border of Zahumlje went along the line Popovo-Ljubinje-Dabar and met with the Travunian border at the city of Ragusa, which had to pay the annual tax mogorish of 36 pieces of gold to the Zachlumian rulers and at times accept their rule. Zachlumia was split on 9 zhupanates: Ston, Popovo, Dubrava, Luka, Dabar, Žapska, Gorička and Večenik around Neretva. Zahumlje had access to the Adriatic Sea with the Pelješac peninsula and faced Serbia northwards.

In its later periods, Zahumlje was split into two Duchies: Upper Zahumlje in the west and Lower Zahumlje in the east.

As the toponym Pagania disappeared by the turn of the 11th century, the land of Hum was expanded to include the territory between Neretva and Cetina previously referred to as Pagania. This territory was at the time controlled by local magnates called Radivojevići, Jurjevići or Vlatkovići.

History
In the second decade of the 7th century, the Avars and their Slavic subjects occupied most of the Byzantine province of Dalmatia, including the territory of what would become Zahumlje, sacking towns and enslaving or displacing the local population. Some of the Slavs and Avars might have permanently settled in the occupied areas. Hum had also a large number of Vlachs who were descendent from a pre-Slavic population. Related to Romanians and originally speaking a language related to Romanian, the Vlachs of what was Hum are today Slavic speaking.

Around 630, during the reign of Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, Slavic tribes led by their respective chieftains entered the western Balkans from the north, which was approved by the emperor. They inhabited areas that had been devastated by the Avars, where Byzantium (East Roman Empire) had generally been reduced to only nominal rule. Zahumlje was one of the regions settled by the Slav, and Tibor Živković and Neven Budak maintain that the DAI as a main source suggests that the Constantine VII's consideration about the region population ethnic identity is based on Serbian political rule and does not indicate ethnic origin.



The history of Hum, before it bcame part of Bosnian state, as a greater political entity starts with the emerging of Michael of Zahumlje, an independent South Slavic ruler who flourished in the early part of the 10th century. A neighbour of Croatian Kingdom and Principality of Serbia as well as an ally of Bulgaria, he was nevertheless able to maintain independent rule throughout at least a good part of his reign. Michael have come into territorial conflict with the neighbouring prince Peter Gojniković, the ruler of principality of Serbia, who was extending his power westwards. To eliminate that threat and as a close ally of Bulgaria, Michael warned the Bulgarian Tsar Simeon I about the alliance between Peter and Symeon's enemy, the Byzantine Empire. Mihailo Višević entered into closer relations with the Byzantine Empire, after the death of Bulgaria's Tsar Simeon. He gained the grand titles of the Byzantine court as anthypatos and patrician (patrikios). He remained as ruler of Zahumlje into the 940s, while maintaining good relations with the Papacy.

After the death of Mihailo, Zahumlje came under the rule of Serbian prince Časlav Klonimirović, the last of the Vlastimirović dynasty. With the death of Časlav, Serbia disintegrated and in 11th century Duklja absorbed most of Raška along with Zahumlje and Travunija, extending his influence over early Bosnia under knyaz.

In the 990s, Bulgarian Tsar Samuel made client states out of most of the Balkans, including Duklja and Zahumlje.

In a charter dated July 1039, Ljutovid of Zahumlje who was an independent Slavic ruler of Zahumlje, styled himself "Ljutovit, protospatharios epi tou Chrysotriklinou, hypatos, strategos" of Serbia and Zahumlje, which suggests the Byzantine Emperor granted him nominal right over neighbouring lands, including Duklja. Vojislav of Duklja (fl. 1018-1043) soon took Zahumlje from the Byzantines. During the rule of Constantine Bodin (r. 1081–1101), neither Bosnia, Rascia nor Zahumlje was ever integrated into Duklja, each retained its own nobility and institutions and simply acquired a Vojislavljević to head the local structure as Prince or Duke.

Kočapar, the Prince of Duklja (r. 1102–1103), ruled in the name of Vukan I of Serbia. There was a split between the two, and Vukan sent forces to Duklja, making Kočapar flee to Bosnia and then Zahumlje, where he died. Zavida ruled Zahumlje before getting into a conflict with his brothers, resulting in him being exiled to Duklja, where he would have the title of Lord of Ribnica.

About 1150, the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos displeased with king Radoslav of Duklja, divided up his lands between princes of the old Serbian family of Zavida, and Stefan Nemanja secured the land of Hum. After 1168 when Nemanja was raised to the Serbian throne with Manuel's favor, Hum passed to his brother Miroslav. He married a sister of Ban Kulin, who in meantime acquired the throne of Bosnia. The subjects of Miroslav and Kulin included both Catholic and Orthodox. Prince Miroslav himself was Orthodox. In the meantime, both Bosnia and Hum had been fought between Kingdom of Hungary and Byzantine Empire. The Catholics supported the former and the Orthodox the latter. A support of the growing heresy seemed the best solution for both Kulin and Miroslav.

Following the death of Emperor Manuel in 1180 Miroslav started ecclesiastical superior of Hum. He refused to allow Rainer, Latin Archbishop of Spalato (Split) whom he considered to be an agent of Hungarian king, to consecrate a bishop for the town of Ston. Rainer complained to the Pope Alexander III, who sent Teobald to report on the matter. The Pope's nuncio Teobald found Miroslav as a patron of heretics. After this, the Pope wrote to king Béla III of Hungary who was overlord of Hum (which Miroslav did not recognize), telling him to see that Miroslav performed his duty, but Miroslav remained as Prince of Hum. In 1190-1192, Stefan Nemanja briefly assigned the rule of Hum to his son Rastko Nemanjić, before Miroslav continued ruling Hum after 1192. Latin vengeance came in March 1198, when Andrew II of Hungary become the prince of Dalmatia, Croatia and Hum, while Miroslav died a year after and his wife was living in exile.

Andrija Mirosavljević is entitled the rule of Hum, but the Hum nobility chose his brother Petar. Andrija is exiled to Rascia, to the court of his cousin, the Grand Prince Stefan Nemanjić. In the meantime, Petar fought successfully with neighbouring Bosnia and Croatia. Stefan Nemanjić sided with Andrija and went to war and secured Hum and Popovo field for Andrija sometime after his accession. Petar was defeated and crossed the Neretva, continuing to rule the west and north of the Neretva, which had around 1205 been briefly occupied by Andrew II of Hungary. Toljen Toljenović, the son of Toljen I, succeeded as Prince, ruling 1227-1237. Andrija's sons Bogdan, Radoslav and Djordje succeed as Princes of Hum in 1249, Radoslav held the supreme rule. During the war against Ragusa, he aided his kinsman Stephen Uroš I of Serbia, at the same time swearing allegiance to Béla IV of Hungary. Following an earthquake in the Hum capital of Ston, the Serbian Orthodox bishop of Hum moved to the church of St Peter and St Paul built on the Lim River near the Serbian border in the 1250s.

Radoslav of Zahumlje was from 1254 a vassal of Hungary, but probably afterwards his land were absorbed into Serbia. However, he was at war with Serbia in 1268, while still under Hungarian suzerainty. But seeking to centralize his realm, Stephen Uroš I of Serbia tried to stamp out regional differences by dropping references to Zahumlje (Hum), Trebinje and Duklja (Zeta), and called himself "King of all Serbian land and the Coast". Miroslav's descendants dropped to the level of other local nobles.

14th century


Paul I Šubić of Bribir as Ban of Croatia and Dalmatia controlled Croatia from Gvozd Mountain to the river Neretva mouth, and after he became Lord of all of Bosnia in 1299, acting independently of his overlord, the Hungarian king, expanded his domain into western Hum, and also eastward beyond the Neretva river, taking region from Nevesinje and Ston. In 1312, Hum was added to the title of Mladen II Šubić, who succeeded Paul. At least part of Paul's conquests were granted to his vassal Constantine Nelipčić. After Paul's death, Milutin and Dragutin concluded a peace, and went to war against Šubić family. In the war that followed Milutin took one of Mladen's brother captive, and to get him back Mladen Šubić had to agree to restore a part of Hum to Milutin. After this agreement in 1313 the Neretva again became the border between eastern and western Hum.

By 1325, the Branivojević family had emerged as strongest in Hum. Probably at their highest point they ruled from Cetina River to the town of Kotor. Though nominal vassals of Serbia, the Branivojević family attacked Serbian interests and other local nobles of Hum, who in 1326 turned against Serbia and Branivojević family. The Hum nobles approached to Stjepan Kotromanić II, the ban of Bosnia, who then annexed most of Hum. The Draživojevići of Nevesinje as vassals of Bosnian Ban, become the leading family of Hum in the 1330s. Because of the war in 1327-1328 between Serbia and Dubrovnik, Bosnian lordship of inner Hum and the war in Macedonia, Stephen Uroš IV Dušan sold Ston and Pelješac to Dubrovnik, and turned to the east to acquire all of Macedonia.

The region was overwhelmed by the House of Kotromanić from Bosnia in 1322-1326. By the mid-14th century, Bosnia apparently reached a peak under Ban Tvrtko I who came into power in 1353.

15th century
In the beginning of the 15th century, Hrvoje Vukčić Hrvatinić ruled over the western Hum, and Sandalj Hranić Kosača ruled over its eastern part, while the Neretva river remain a border between their possessions.

Bosnian regional lord Stjepan Vukčić Kosača who ruled over Zahumlje, in 1448 dropped his title "Vojvode of Bosnia", assuming the title "Herceg [Duke] of Hum and the Coast". He changed it again in 1449 to "Herceg of Saint Sava" in recollection of the Serbian saint. This title had considerable public relations value, because Sava's relics were consider miracle-working by people of all Christian faiths. His lands were known as Herzog's lands or later Herzegovina.

In 1451 he attacked Dubrovnik, and laid siege to the city. He had earlier been made a Ragusan nobleman and, consequently, the Ragusan government now proclaimed him a traitor. A reward of 15,000 ducats, a palace in Dubrovnik worth 2,000 ducats, and an annual income of 300 ducats was offered to anyone who would kill him, along with the promise of hereditary Ragusan nobility which also helped hold this promise to whoever did the deed. Stjepan was so scared by the threat that he finally raised the siege.

Inhabitants
Most of Hum's territory was inhabited by Slaves and aboriginal Slavicized Illyrian tribes, locally and in some foreign documents called by names of Vlachs, Morlachs and Škutori, and, depending to locality, belonged to the either Bosnian Church, Catholic Church, or Eastern Church (after the Great Schism, under the Archbishop of Ohrid until 1219, and later under the Serbian Orthodox Church). Hum's coastal region, including its capital Ston, had a mixed population of Catholics and Orthodox.Like in most of Bosnia, all three denominations were firmly establishedThe Bishopric of Hum, seated in Ston, was part of the Archbishopric of Serbia.

List of dukes

 * Hrana Vuković, Grand Duke of Bosnia (?-1380), Knyaz of Hum (?-1380)
 * Vlatko Vuković, Grand Duke of Bosnia (1388–1392), Knyaz of Hum (1380-1392)
 * Sandalj Hranić Kosača, Grand Duke of Bosnia (1392–1435), Knyaz of Hum (1392–1435)
 * Stjepan Vukčić Kosača, Grand Duke of Bosnia (1435–1441/48), Knyaz of Hum (1435–1441), Duke of Hum (1448), changed intitulation to Herzeg of Hum (1449-1466), in 1449 added Herzeg of Saint Sava to his title
 * Vlatko Hercegović, Herzeg of Hum (1466 to 1481)
 * Hersekzade Ahmed Pasha, born Stjepan Hercegović, Knyaz of Hum (1459 to 1473), 19th Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire (1497–1498), and four more times in office (1503–1506), (1511–1511), (1512–28 November 1514), (8 September 1515–26 April 1516), Grand Admiral of Ottoman fleet
 * Balša Hercegović, Knyaz of Hum (cca. 1455 to 1469 ?)

Under Stjepan Vukčić
At its greatest extent, under Stjepan Vukčić helm, and later his son Vladislav, of the Kosača noble family, ruled the territories that included significant part of modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina, and extended to parts of modern-day coastal Croatia, eastern Montenegro and southeastern corner of Serbia, also known as Sandžak. Stjepan titled himself "Herceg of Hum" ("herceg Humske zemlje") in 1448, and two years later, in 1450, he added "of Saint Sava", after the first Serbian Archbishop, Saint Sava. The title is of German origin, Herzog ("Duke"), and it was used as an equivalent to the South Slavic title Vojvoda. Stjepan's title would later give the name to the present-day region of Herzegovina, as the Ottomans used Hersek Sancağı ("Sanjak of the Herzog") for the province which was transformed into an Ottoman sanjak. On 15 February 1444, Stephen signed a treaty with Alfonso V, King of Aragon and Naples, becoming his vassal in exchange for the king's help against Stjepan's enemies, namely King Stephen Thomas of Bosnia, Duke Ivaniš Pavlović and the Republic of Venice. In the same treaty Stjepan promised to pay regular tribute to Alfonso instead of his tribute to the Ottoman sultan, which he had done up until then.

During the years historians gave various answer to the question who bestowed Stjepan with the title Herceg, with the Bosnian king, the pope, King Frederick III, the king of Aragon being mentioned. However, with a careful search a rather unusual conclusion is drawn, that Stjepan probably took the title himself in the first half of October 1448. Confirmation and recognition of this move came from his principal ally at the time, the Ottomans. In 17 October 1448, the citizens of Dubrovnik congratulated Stjepan on the fact with a "de поvа dignitate сhеrzech acquisita". Since then, Stjepan began to carry the Herceg title, first in the style of "By the Grace of God Herceg of Hum and Duke of Primorje, Bosnian Grand Duke, Knyaz of Drina and the rest", as the first document from 29 January 1448 shows, following with the charter of confirmation from 5 July 1450 when he styled himself, "Mi gospodin Stjepan, herceg od Svetoga Save, gospodar humski i veliki vojvoda rusaga bosanskoga, knez drinski i k tomu".

The title "Herceg of Saint Sava" had considerable public relations value, because Sava's relics, which were located in Mileševa, were considered miracle-working by people of all Christian faiths in the region. . This significantly improved relations between Stjepan and the Serbian Despot Đurađ Branković, and helped him conquer Višegrad and Srebrnica from the Bosnian crown the same year. In 1451 Stjepan attacked Dubrovnik, and laid siege to the city. He had earlier been made a Ragusan nobleman and, consequently, the Ragusan government now proclaimed him a traitor. A reward of 15,000 ducats, a palace in Dubrovnik worth 2,000 ducats, and an annual income of 300 ducats was offered to anyone who would kill him, along with the promise of hereditary Ragusan nobility which also helped hold this promise to whoever did the deed. Stjepan was so scared by the threat that he finally raised the siege. Stjepan Vukčić died in 1466, and was succeeded by his eldest son Vladislav Hercegović. In 1482 he was overpowered by Ottoman forces led by Stjepan Vukčić's youngest son, Hersekli Ahmed Pasha, who converted to Islam prior to that. In the Ottoman Empire, Herzegovina was organized as a part (sanjak) within the province (pashaluk) of Bosnia. Stjepan founded the Serbian Orthodox Zagrađe Monastery near his realm's seat in Soko, modern-day northwestern Montenegro, and the Savina Monastery, near Herceg Novi in the Bay of Kotor.

Rulers

 * Hrana Vuković
 * Vlatko Vuković
 * Sandalj Hranić
 * Stjepan Vukčić Kosača, 1435–1466
 * Vladislav Hercegović and Vlatko Hercegović, 1466–1482
 * Balša Hercegović (in title)