User:Sarahbethea/sandbox

Sarah Bethea = Oslo =

Environment[edit]
Oslo has gained international recognition as a “green city” for its commitment to sustainability. The city is surrounded by nationally protected forests, the Oslo Fjord, and other waterways. The city has enacted policies to conserve and protect its natural areas. The waterways, which had been enclosed as part of industry and development, are being reopened in order to restore them as habitat for marine life (6). City developers have constructed artificial reefs to protect marine life from disturbance by boats and development (4). Oslo and its surrounding area contains the most biodiversity found anywhere in the country (5). In the Urban Ecology Program (2011 - 2026), Oslo committed to reduce its noise levels, carbon emissions and air pollution, maintain biodiversity and the health of surrounding natural areas, and cooperate with local, national, and global governments to create a more sustainable society (3). Additionally, city council passed the Improved Management of Biodiversity in Oslo plan in 2015 (3). The Climate Change Adaptation Strategy for the City of Oslo 2014-2030 plan was also adopted the same year (3). The Climate and Energy Strategy for Oslo plan was adopted in 2016 and details targets and measures to achieve emissions reductions goals and increase the sustainability of the energy system. The Action Plan for Stormwater Management in Oslo is an executive summary detailing goals for development of a flood water retention network, and was approved by city council in 2014 (3). The Platform for City Government Cooperation details negotiations and agreements made between the Green Party, Socialist Left Party, and the Labour Party in 2015 to prioritize sustainability and reduce social inequality (3). Oslo, and Norway as a whole, has aimed to become an eco tourism destination. Norway founded its national label “Ecotourism Norway”, which acts as a quality standard for businesses in the country, incentivizing them to abide by criteria such as offering nature focused experiences, contributing to conservation, reducing emissions and carbon footprint, and limiting impacts on local culture and nature (7).

Oslo has committed to reduce its emissions by 50% by the year 2020, and to become entirely carbon neutral by 2050. The city plans to do so by improving public transportation infrastructure and by encouraging bicycling and use of electric vehicles. Additionally, biogas is produced from the city’s organic waste and sewage and is used to fuel city buses and waste trucks. The biomethane produced from sewage yields low carbon emissions and cuts down on waste significantly (2, 6). Oslo has become the world’s most “electrically powered capital” (5), with its high numbers of electric buses, cars, and bikes. The city has installed over 700 electric vehicle charging stations (2). In January, 2017, 50% of all car sales in Oslo were hybrid or electric vehicles (12). 90% of buses operating in Oslo are low emission, and 90% of the population lives within 300 meters of a bus stop (13). Through the initiative ‘Bilfritt byliv’, which translates to “car-free city life”, city government has reduced traffic and closed street parking in many areas to instead make room for cyclists, green spaces, benches, and other forms of public spaces (4). Buildings in the city are created to be as green as possible, with examples such as the Munch Museum, the Deichman Museum, and the National Museum, which have all been built to reduce their carbon footprint (4). Additionally, the Oslo airport is known as the world’s greenest airport. It was built using locally sourced and environmentally friendly materials, efficient waste management, and energy saving methods. One such method is snow-based cooling. In winter, snow is collected and stored under insulating sawdust. In summer, the meltwater is used to cool the building. In winter, natural thermal energy is used to heat the buildings (18,19,). The Oslo Airport is the first to be rewarded with an “excellent” rating by the BREEAM sustainability assessment (20).

Oslo has formed the ‘Business for Climate Network’ initiative, which brings together 3 industry sectors - energy, transportation, and raw resources - to work together to introduce sustainability measures. The city has set aside a sustainability budget to help it achieve it’s 2020 goal of reducing emissions by 50% (6, 1, 3,). Organizations such as Innovation Norway and Green Business Norway focus on green innovation and sustainable solutions for the petroleum and and other industries (8, 10). Much of Norway’s wealth is attributed to oil production and export, but it is a world leader in green energy. Norway is increasing use of solar and wind energy, and the automotive industry aims to continue to increase use of electric vehicles (11, 21). A project to develop solar farms which float on the ocean’s surface has been initiated by alternative energy startup Ocean Sun with a grant from Innovation Norway (21). Through projects such as this, Norway continues to be a leader in green energy innovation.

Oslo has committed to increasing the sustainability of its food systems as well. The city hosts a popular urban farm known as Losaeter, run by cooperatives Futurefarmers, Flatbread Society, and the Future of Food collective. The farm produces sustainable meats and cultivates indigenous plants organically (14). Because of its climate and mountainous landscape, only 3% of land in Norway is used for agriculture. The rest of the food supply must be imported. However, the urban farming movement has become more popular in Oslo, with individuals, small businesses, and restaurants turning to rooftop gardens and urban spaces to get organic and locally produced food items (15, 16). Additionally, the vegan movement is growing in the city, with numerous plant-based restaurants, grocery stores, and vegan menu items (17).

For its efforts and implementation of effective sustainability initiatives, Oslo has been awarded the European Green Capital by the European Commission. This recognition is highly regarded, and the European Commission has annually announced the year’s green city since 2010. Previous winners include Copenhagen and Stockholm, and in 2019 Oslo will join their ranks (9, 5). Oslo had competition from 13 other European cities including Lahti, Tallinn, and Lisbon. Candidate cities were evaluated in areas such as climate politics, public transportation, biodiversity and outdoor life, air and water quality, and green innovation. Out of the 12 categories evaluated, Oslo was ranked highest out of potential candidates in 8 (5, 1). Oslo aims to be a role model for other cities, testing new solutions to the global issue of climate change and sustainability (1). In 2019, the city will host a number of events in a collaborative effort to increase sustainable innovation and invite the community and grassroots organizations to take part in creating a more sustainable society (1). These events include the Urban Future Global Conference, Nordic Electric Vehicle Summit, Oslo Innovation Week, Nordic Biogas Conference, World Green Infrastructure Congress, and Nor-Shipping 2019, which focuses on sustainable solutions for the shipping industry and marine business (1).

Sources:


 * 1) “Oslo European Green Capital 2019”. Oslo Europeisk Miljohovedstaden. 2018
 * 2) “Green City Oslo Leading by Example”. World Wildlife Fund (WWF). 2013
 * 3) “Plans and Programmes”. City of Oslo, Oslo Kommune. 2018
 * 4) “A City For the Future”. Visit Oslo. 2018
 * 5) “Oslo is Getting Ready to be the European Green Capital 2019”. Visit Norway. 2018
 * 6) “Oslo 2019”. European Commission. 2018
 * 7) “Sustainable Development in Norway”. Sustainable Event Alliance. 2018
 * 8) “Sustainability”. Innovation Norway. 2018
 * 9) “Oslo is Europe's Green Capital 2019”. Deutsche Welle. 2018
 * 10) “Green Business Norway”. 2018
 * 11) “On the Front Line for a Sustainable Future”. Norwegian Business School. 2018
 * 12) “Green Transport”. Green Visits - Oslo Region
 * 13) “Application Form for the European Green Capital Award 2019”. European Green Capital. 2018.
 * 14) Treleaven, Sarah. “Losaeter: The Oslo urban farm that’s changing the future of sustainable dining”. The Independent. 2018
 * 15) “Sustainable food – for our health and environment”. University of Oslo. 2018
 * 16) “The Farm-to-Table Movement is Coming to Oslo”. Intelzone.
 * 17) “Vegan Norway”. 2018
 * 18) Miquel, Ros. “Why is Oslo Airport called the world's greenest?”. CNN. 2017
 * 19) Gendell, John. “This Is How Future Airports Must Be Designed”. Architectural Digest. 2017
 * 20) Vella, Heidi. “Sustainable success: Oslo Airport Opens ‘World’s Greenest’ Terminal”. Airport Technology. 2017
 * 21) “Energy and Renewables”. Oslo Business Region. 2018
 * 22) Boztas, Senay. “A Future After Oil and Gas? Norway's Fossil-Free Energy Startups”. The Guardian. 2017

Iceland’s first settlers brought with them northern Germanic religion, otherwise known as Old Norse religion or Paganism. Old Norse religion was polytheistic, with major and commonly known deities including Odin, Thor, Freyr, Freyja, and Loki. Such gods were anthropomorphic, meaning they had human characteristics and expressed human emotion.

In the 10th century, some settlers who had picked up Christianity in other areas brought the religion to Iceland. However, the majority still worshipped Pagan Gods.

In the year 1000 AD, Norwegian king Ólafur Tryggvason convicted the Althing and Icelandic Chieftains to officially adopt Christianity as the national religion. Ólafur Tryggvason recognized the political advantages of making connections to the wealthy and powerful Christian church.

Under the Danish Crown, Iceland became a catholic country. In the 1530s, the Icelandic Reformation resulted in a nationwide switch to Lutheranism. To this day, the lutheran Church of Iceland remains the official state church. One of the most recognizable buildings in Reykjavik is Hallgrimskirkja, a modern cathedral which is the largest church in the country as well as one of the tallest buildings.

Recently, there has been a revival of Old Norse faith in the country, with a worship center and community focused in Reykjavik. Ásatrúarfélagið, is a religious organization based in Reykjavik which was founded in 1972 and gained recognition as a state recognized religious organization in 1973. While Ásatrúarfélagið draws heavily from Old Norse mythology and cultural customs, it does not have a fixed dogma. The founders of the group, native citizens of Reykjavik, have stated that the intentions of the organization are to bring members a connection to nature and to form a religion unique to Iceland. As of 2018, 4126 members are registered with the organization.

Sources (still need to complete citations and format them correctly)


 * 1) Lacy 2000, p. 166: "The Old Treaty, signed in 1262, that led to Iceland's being first under the Norwegian and later the Danish kings was such a milestone, as was the Reformation in 1550 whereby Lutheranism became, and remains, Iceland's state religion".

2. http://www.hurstwic.org/history/articles/mythology/religion/text/conversion_in_iceland.htm

“The Acceptance of Christianity in Viking-Age Iceland” Hurstwic

3. “Visit the only heathen temple in Iceland in Skagafjörður fjord for a pagan grill party this Saturday” Iceland Mag

= https://icelandmag.is/article/visit-only-heathen-temple-iceland-skagafjordur-fjord-a-pagan-grill-party-saturday = 4. https://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/evangelical-lutheran-church-of-iceland 5. http://www.hallgrimskirkja.is/um-hallgrimskirkju/ 6. https://visitreykjavik.is/hallgrimskirkja-church 7. http://www.arnastofnun.is/page/old_norse_religion 8. https://www.pitt.edu/~dash/njal100.html

Nuremberg, (Nürnberg in German) appeared in official records in the year 1050. Originally, only the Kaiserburg, or Imperial Castle, stood. It was built by Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor, duke of Bavaria and king of Germany, who became Emperor of the Holy Roman empire in 1046. A settlement was established around the castle.

During the years 1219–1806, Nuremberg was a independent city-state, known as the Free Imperial City of Nuremberg. In 1219, Nuremberg gained independence from the Burgraviate of Nuremberg, and took control of a considerable swath of land from Bavaria following the War of the Succession of Landshut. Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor issued the “Great Freedom Letter”, granting protection and independence to the citizens of Nuremberg. As an independent city-state, Nuremberg did not answer to local chieftains or lords, but was under direct rule of the Roman Emperor.

Due in part to Nuremberg’s central location and it’s independence, Nuremberg became an important city center of the Roman Empire. By the end of the 13th century, the city’s main source of income was manufacturing and trade. In 1356, Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor stated in his “Golden Bull” that newly elected leaders must hold their first Imperial Diet (Holy Roman Empire) in Nuremberg. Imperial Diets were held in the Imperial Castle of Nuremberg until the mid 14th century, when the town hall was completed.

References:


 * 1) “Imperial Castle of Nuremberg”. Bayerische Schlösserverwaltung. (2018)
 * 2) "Nürnberg, Reichsstadt: Politische und soziale Entwicklung" [Political and Social Development of the Imperial City of Nuremberg]. Historisches Lexikon Bayerns (in German).
 * 3) “Nürnberg”. Hellenica World.