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Squadrismo is the movement of squadre d’azione (literally translated as ‘action squads’), which was a non-state organised fascist militia, led by local leaders called ‘Ras’ (title given to the Abyssinian headmen). The militia originally comprised of farmers and the middle-class creating their own defense against revolutionary socialists. Squadrismo became an important asset for the rise of the fascist party led by Mussolini, by using violence to systematically eliminate any political parties which were opposed to Fascism. This violence was not solely an instrument in politics, but was also a vital component of squadrismo identity, which made it difficult for the movement to be tamed. This was shown in the various attempts by Mussolini to control squadrismo violence, with the Pact of Pacification, and finally with the Consolidated Public Act. Squadrismo, which ultimately became the Blackshirts, served as a source of inspiration for Adolf Hitler’s S.A.

Origins
After World War I, there was a general feeling of disillusionment. Diffused poverty, economic fractures, and a social and moral political upheaval generated by the mobilisation of the war, contributed to the unstable climate proceeding the armistice. This enabled an excess of violence to be present. Furthermore, (new) farmers were opposed to the new rural trade unions which wanted to control the agrarian economy. The middle-class decided that they required their own defense against the socialists, because the government could not contain them. As a result, a series of middle-class defense leagues were formed .The first squadrismo was thus one which was nationalist and anarchist, founded on the traditions of the ‘fasci d’azione revoluzionari’, which was a phenomenon of citizens.

In this context emerges the ‘Fasci di Combattimento’. Founded 23 March 1919 by Benito Mussolini, in the course of a reunion in the San Sepolcro Square in Milan. Squadrismo as a movement expanded instantly after the creation of the ‘Fasci di Combattimento’, and by Spring 1920, fascists put into place a political militia of ‘squadre’ in various parts of Northern Italy, mostly in Trieste. Many of these ‘squadristi’ (name given to individuals in the squadrismo movement) joined the ‘Fasci di Combattimento’, but some remained independent from Mussolini’s control. From this point onward, various assaults by Trieste squads against Socialists and Slavs took place. Thousands of squads formed ‘action squads’ and spread terror throughout the country-side. The squads were groups of thirty to fifty, often led by former army officers. In towns where socialism was still strong, squadrismo was a tool of intimidation. It was so violent that some have described the events as a civil war. This profoundly decreased the Italian government’s credibility, which was seen as incapable of keeping law and order.

The habitus of squadrismo was characterised by violence, which was utilised in a political way, where 'squadristi' acted under the oversight of local leaders, also known as ‘Ras’. The fact that squadrismo had protection from national and local leaders also legitimised and banalised their violence, enhancing the idea that there was no opposition possible to the new Fascist party.

Towards the March on Rome
At first the Fascist movement had difficulty gaining power, however it quickly drew attention through its ominous acts of violence. The movement grew exponentially from 1920 onwards with ‘Fasci di Combattimento’ launching assaults in Northern Italy in rural areas, and contributing to the suppression of all other political and trade union organisations .‘Fasci’ membership grew rapidly, and Mussolini soon declared war on socialist organisations, this led to ‘punitive expeditions’ of ‘squadre’ in the countryside to dismiss Socialist headquarters and fracture trade unions.

During the election period of 1921, the violence continued despite Mussolini’s electoral success. 207 political killings were made, of which substantially more victims were Socialist than Fascist. Mussolini attempted to reduce the violence with the Pact of Pacification, but it soon became ineffective as it was entirely ignored by ‘squadristi’. As a result of failed attempts to discipline them, Mussolini decided to instead utilise their violence to his advantage by converting the movement into an organised party. He did so by means of a national congress which met in Rome from 7-10 November 1921. The new party was named ‘Partito Nazionale Fascista’ and stood for order, discipline, and hierarchy.

The March on Rome on 28 October 1922 further enhanced Mussolini’s seizure of power, with thousands of squadristi marching through the Italian capital city. King Victor Emmanuel III proceeded to appoint Mussolini to lead the new administration. However, this did not stop squadrismo violence, with thousands of people in black shirts participating in ‘squadrista’ militancy from 1920 to 1922.

After the March on Rome, Fascim was torn between the state which wanted to end all illegal violence including squadrismo, and the ‘fasci’ (including 'squadre' leaders) who were determined to maintain their power. In order to finally control this violence, Mussolini issued the Consolidated Public Safety Act in 1926, which delegitimised ‘squadristi’ violence.