User:Sarmsco/Cluster reduction

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Japanese English Language Learners:

Word-initial and word-final consonant clusters do not exist in the Japanese language. Therefore, Japanese ELLs may find producing English words with such clusters to be troublesome. Common cluster simplification strategies for Japanese ELLs include cluster reduction (e.g., string /stɹɪŋ/ → /sɹɪŋ/) and epenthesis (e.g., /stɹɪŋ/ → /stəɹɪŋ/), which describes vowel additions within, or at the end of, words.

Singapore English:

Final consonant cluster reduction is common among those speaking dialects of Singapore English, and they may use cluster reduction strategies known as metathesis, glottalization and deletion. Clusters which have both /t/ and /k/ are usually reduced to [k].

Nigerian English:

As in Singapore English, speakers of Nigerian English may also reduce or delete their final consonant clusters. Strategies of cluster reduction common in Nigerian English include metathesis or epenthesis with the vowels /u/ or /i/. An example of this occurs in the word silk, which Nigerian English speakers may say /silik/ instead. Unlike Singapore English, /k/ and /t/ clusters are generally reduced to [t].

Asian and African Dialects in general:

A common phonotactic feature of Asian and African dialects of English is final consonant cluster reduction.

Children in general:

Children may have trouble with the production of liquids /l/ and /r/. To simplify clusters that include these liquids, children may replace these sounds for the glide /w/ or omit the sounds completely.

Theories for liquid cluster development:

Greenlee (1974)

A three-stage process of developing stop and liquid consonant clusters includes liquid deletion (/pot/ for /plot/), substitution of the liquid with the glide /w/ (/pwot/ for /plot/), and then correct production.

Elbert and McReynolds (1979) created a four-step process based on Greenlee's previous proposal, including stage one, where both consonants are deleted; stage two, where one consonant is kept while the other is omitted; stage three, where both consonants are produced, but not correctly; and stage four, which is the correct production of both consonants. For example, /tree/ would first be produced as /ee/, then /tee/, then /twee/, and, lastly, /tree/.

Children with cochlear implants:

Children using cochlear implants tend to use the same cluster-reduction strategies as children with normal hearing when learning words with consonant clusters. When liquids and fricatives are present before a stop in a cluster, the liquid or fricative is more often the consonant that gets reduced. For example, /pleI/ gets reduced to [peI], and /skaI/ is reduced to [kaI].

Consonant epenthesis in English:

Sometimes, when speaking quickly or during casual conversation, English speakers insert a consonant, which has similar properties to the consonants around it, into a word. This type of epenthesis is called English consonant epenthesis, and it occurs in word productions such as /sompthing/ for the word "something," /warmpth/ for the word "warmth," /lenkth/ for "length," and /prints/ for "prince."

Children with normal language development (English):

Child speakers of different languages show similarities in the clusters they reduce and which consonant they are reduced to. Following are some common word-initial cluster reductions: Clusters including a fricative and a stop typically get reduced to the stop, as in [pun] for spoon. Clusters with a stop and a liquid usually reduce to the stop, such as in [bu] for blue. Clusters with a fricative then a liquid generally get reduced to the fricative, like in [fai] for fly. Clusters containing a stop and a glide are reduced to the stop, as in [kin] for queen. Fricative glide clusters are reduced to the fricative, like in [sIm} for swim. Finally, nasal and glide clusters reduce to the nasal, such as in [musIk] for music.

/S/ clusters serve as a special case for development, as they are learned separately from other clusters, with some children learning them first and some learning them last. In general, English-speaking children reduce /sl-/ clusters to [s] (as in /sling/ - /sing/), but reduce every other type of /s/ cluster (/sp-/, /st-/, /sk/, /sm-/, /sn-/, and /sw-/) to the second consonant in the cluster.

Typically developing Dutch-speaking children:

It is common for Dutch-speaking children to begin reducing clusters between ages 1;3 and 1;11. The strategy tends to decrease between ages 2;6 and 3;0, and it drastically decreases by the time the children are 4;3. Some cluster reduction may linger until the age of 6, and development of clusters could last until the age of 10 for some.

Brazilian-Portugese speaking children:

Consonant-cluster reduction is the most common phonological process used by Brazilian Portuguese-speaking children, and it has been found to be used the longest, sometimes past the age of 6;0. Studies have not shown any gender differences in language acquisition for typically developing Brazilian children.

Cantonese-speaking children:

Unlike Brazilian Portuguese-speaking children, differences in language acquisition have been found in Cantonese-speaking children. With consonants, girls tend to acquire both initial and final consonants before boys do. Consonant clusters containing a fricative and /l/ are generally the final clusters acquired, and, by the ages of 7;6-7;11, typically developing children usually no longer reduce clusters.

ELLs in general:

English language learners may have troubles with consonant clusters when learning English, especially if their native language does not contain words with that feature.

Chicano English:

A common simplification process in Chicano English is word-final cluster simplification. For example, "ward" would sound like "war," and "start" would sound like "star." In Spanish, there is a sequential constraint, and /s/ clusters cannot occur at the beginning of a word. Due to this constraint, epenthesis of a vowel in a word before the beginning /s/ cluster is common, such as in the words "school, "scare," and "spoon," which would sound like [iskul], [iskɛr], and [ispun], respectively.