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Driffield Terrace Roman cemetery
The Driffield Terrace Roman cemetery is a burial ground dated to the third and fourth centuries AD. The archaeological site is located at Driffield Terrace, York, and was discovered and excavated in 2004-2005 by York Archaeological Trust. The cemetery was found to contain over 80 burials, primarily of young male individuals. A large proportion of these individuals died by decapitation, and some were shown to have migrated from as far away as the Middle East. The unusual nature of the cemetery compared to other nearby sites has generated many different hypotheses and interpretations. It is most commonly thought to be a cemetery for soldiers in the Roman army.

Background
Roman York, then known as Eboracum, was one of the largest cities in Britain during the period of Roman occupation (AD 43 to AD 410). With a population of an estimated 7,000-10,000 at its peak, Eboracum was the most northerly and peripheral city in the Roman province of Britannia. The city housed a large military garrison, which frequently participated in armed conflict, notably on Hadrian’s Wall and the Scottish border. Eboracum was a centre of Roman trade and culture, despite its distance from Rome. Textual accounts indicate that the city contained a large proportion of immigrants, particularly within the Roman army.

Following Roman burial traditions, the dead at Eboracum were buried outside the city walls, frequently along roads. Archaeological excavations have unearthed a number of other cemeteries from the period within the close vicinity of Driffield Terrace. The Driffield Terrace Roman cemetery is one of these. It is situated to the south-east of the city walls, on a slightly elevated feature now known as ‘The Mount’. The cemetery is situated near a main road, which during the Roman period connected Eboracum and Tadcaster (Calcaria).

Excavations
The Driffield Terrace Roman cemetery was excavated by York Archaeological Trust. Following some preliminary investigations and evaluation trenches, archaeological excavations were carried out at 1-3 Driffield Terrace from August 2004 to January 2005, then at 6 Driffield Terrace from June 2005 to August 2005. The two excavations were approximately 50m apart. The trenches opened were of relatively small size, due to their location within private gardens. Large amounts of human remains, animal remains and artefacts were recovered. Archives from the excavation, including skeletal material, are stored in the Yorkshire Museum.

Composition and layout
The excavations uncovered a total of eighty-two inhumations and eighteen cremations. Fifty-eight inhumations and seventeen cremations were unearthed at 1-3 Driffield Terrace, while the excavations at 6 Driffield Terrace yielded twenty-four inhumations and one cremation. The demographic profile of the cemetery, principally consisting of young males, is very unusual for the period and location. Out of the 82 individuals, 75 are adults; none appear to have lived past the age of forty-five. Sixty-six adult skeletons were securely identified as male, while only one was female. Disarticulated bones, not associated with any skeleton, are present in 101 different archaeological contexts; these follow the general demographics of the cemetery, and appear to come from young males, in the cases that sex and age are identifiable. Although radiocarbon dating was not carried out, the cemetery was dated from the late 2nd century AD to the late 4th century AD based on pottery and stratigraphic analysis.

The burials did not follow a clear alignment. Although they appear to be laid out with care, younger graves frequently cut into older graves, generating a disordered layout. A majority of the graves contain only one individual, but there are instances of double, triple, and quadruple burials. The inhumations are disposed in a supine and extended position, except for fifteen cases of flexed legs and three prone burials. The presence of empty grave-like features suggests that some burials may have been removed at an unknown date.

Burials
A complete osteological analysis was carried out on the skeletal material from the Driffield Terrace Roman cemetery. The skeletons were well-preserved and relatively complete, despite the graves frequently intercutting each other. Based on measurements of long bones, the individuals are between 155cm and 183cm tall. Average stature is approximately 171cm, slightly taller than the average for males in Roman Britain.

The individuals buried in the cemetery displayed a number of health conditions; most are minor. Due to the young age of the skeletons, joint issues and degenerative diseases are infrequent in the skeletal record. A high incidence of cribra orbitalia and linear enamel hypoplasia suggests that many of the individuals were subjected to nutritional stress, both in childhood and adulthood. Respiratory infections also appear to have been common. Dental health within the cemetery population was good, with few caries and few teeth lost before death.

Many skeletons showed signs of injury associated with athletic activity. Healed fractures, particularly in the limbs, are frequent; other common injuries include fractures of the thumb metatarsal, which is frequently associated with boxing. Os acromiale, or non-fusion of a section of the shoulder blade, is also prevalent; it is often caused by stress of the rotator cuff in the shoulder from actions such as throwing or sword fighting. Tooth fractures are also frequent. There is little evidence for trauma caused by sharp objects, and all injuries occurred before the death of the individuals. Small triangular indentations were found in the pelvis of one individual: it has been hypothesised that these were made by a bite from a big cat or similar carnivore.

Decapitations
A very high number of individuals buried within the Driffield Terrace Roman cemetery were decapitated. Out of 82 skeletons, 46 show clear signs of decapitation, through both cuts on the bone and head placement. For two individuals, it was not possible to determine whether or not decapitation had taken place due to the absence of the relevant parts of the skeleton. The rate of prevalence of decapitation is 56.1%. This is extremely high compared to other cemeteries from Roman Britain, where decapitation is occasionally present, but never at the scale observed at Driffield Terrace.

The severed heads were placed whole at the feet or on the legs of the burials, or less frequently near the shoulders. Clear cuts from a sharp blade can be seen in 60% of cases on the vertebrae or mandible. All cuts were dealt from the back. They either directly killed the individual or were dealt very shortly after death. Some individuals show evidence of multiple cuts to the neck area: in one case, fourteen blows were dealt, suggesting that the individual was mutilated after death. The disposition of decapitated burials follows no clear pattern within the cemetery.

Artefacts
Artefacts recovered during the Driffield Terrace excavations are relatively sparse. Iron nails were present at 6 Driffield Terrace, likely indicating the use of wooden coffins. Small amounts of pottery and animal bones from horse and chickens suggest funerary feasting or the placement of offerings to the dead. Other artefacts discovered include remains of hobnailed boots, bone pins, and a jet bead. One skeleton from 1-3 Driffield Terrace had iron rings around the ankles. These have no shackles, suggesting that they were not intended to restrain the individual, but had some other type of function. Burial practices for 3rd-4th century Roman Britain did not typically involve the use of grave goods; the Driffield Terrace cemetery generally conforms to this pattern.

Geographical origin of the burials
Evidence suggests that some of the individuals buried in the Driffield Terrace Roman cemetery were born or raised outside of Britain. Osteological metric analysis of crania suggests that a number of burials may have been of black or mixed heritage. However, this method is not always accurate, and its results must be treated with caution. Some of the artefacts, notably the Samian ware, are of foreign origin. These may simply be imports, but could also be buried there due to foreign individuals retaining elements of their culture. Roman York was known to be a cosmopolitan city, with immigrants from all over the Roman Empire.

Isotope analysis is a scientific method that uses bone chemistry to study the diet and geographical origin of burials. Dietary intake influences the ratios of certain carbon and nitrogen isotopes, while lead, strontium, and oxygen isotope ratios depend on local climate and geology. Different isotope ratios, known as isotopic signatures, are stored in human tissues. Isotopes in bone reflect an individual’s adult life. Enamel forms in childhood and isotopes in enamel are therefore used to study differences between early life and adulthood. A number of studies have aimed to better understand the population buried at Driffield Terrace.

Analysis of strontium and oxygen isotope ratios in tooth enamel from six skeletons buried at 1-3 Driffield Terrace indicated that the individuals buried in the cemetery likely came from a wide range of locations. The same pattern was observed in eighteen teeth sampled at 6 Driffield Terrace. Lead isotope analyses also indicated that four out of four individuals analyzed were unlikely to have been born in Britain. These burials were exposed to levels of lead pollution typical of Roman societies, but the ratios of 204Pb to 206Pb and 208Pb were not typical of British lead. Carbon isotope ratios in certain individuals were higher than the normal range for Roman Britain, suggesting millet consumption. Millet was not cultivated in Roman Britain, but was often found in Mediterranean Europe, where it was regularly consumed as well as sometimes used as famine relief food.

Although isotope analysis does not allow the precise identification of a place of origin, certain areas can be narrowed down. Many individuals display isotope ratios typical of the area. However, the isotopic values typically displayed in the Vale of York are common throughout Europe, meaning that it is impossible to detect immigration from certain regions, such as Gaul or Transylvania. Dietary isotope ratios show some cases of millet consumption, possibly indicating that some individuals buried in the Driffield Terrace Roman cemetery travelled from Mediterranean Europe. Oxygen isotopes suggest that some burials came from areas of warmer climate and older geology than Britain, further suggesting Mediterranean origins. One individual may have come from the Alps or Central Europe. Due to the difficulty of identifying the origin of the majority of the skeletons, more research is needed to fully understand migration to and from Roman York. Overall, the results of isotope analysis indicate that the individuals buried at Driffield Terrace came from a variety of origins, matching previous knowledge of the cosmopolitan nature of the city.

Possible Middle Eastern individual
One of the skeletons from 1-3 Driffield Terrace, 3-DRIF-26, showed notably different results to other individuals from the cemetery. Ancient DNA analysis was carried out on seven individuals from Driffield Terrace. Unlike the six other individuals, analysis of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in 3-DRIF-26’s mitochondrial DNA indicated that that burial was very likely to be of Middle Eastern descent. Oxygen isotope analysis carried out on 3-DRIF-26’s tooth enamel indicated that they spent their childhood in an arid and warm climate. Strontium isotope analysis suggested an origin on basaltic geology, which is present in certain areas of the Near East and Middle East. Combined, these lines of evidence strongly suggest that 3-DRIF-26 was born outside Britain, in an unidentified area of the Middle East, and later died by decapitation and was buried at Driffield Terrace. A number of fractures and injuries, particularly to the ribs, suggest that 3-DRIF-26 participated in violence.

Historical context of the burials
The third and fourth centuries were a tumultuous period for Roman Britain. Roman York (Eboracum) was frequently involved in Severan dynasty conflicts and in conflicts on the northern border. Eboracum was briefly captured by Caledonians at the end of the second century. During the reigns of Roman emperors Septimius Severus (193-211) and Caracalla (198-217), Eboracum was the capital of the Roman province of Britannia Inferior, and frequently received imperial visits. During this period, the city became increasingly cosmopolitan, with soldiers from many different provinces stationed in the city’s garrisons. Political executions and killings were a common feature of the period.

Possible occupations of the dead
The Driffield Terrace Roman cemetery is exceptional compared to typical Roman cemeteries in York. The high proportion of young males and specific patterns of trauma including high rates of decapitation have led researchers to believe that the cemetery served a very specific purpose. Various studies have hypothesised that the burials were those of soldiers, gladiators, executed criminals, or victims of a massacre or political execution.

The burials were deposited over a period of time spanning up to two hundred years. It is therefore unlikely that the dead were victims of a sudden massacre or execution event related to political instability in Eboracum. Additionally, the burials were shown a certain amount of care, which is generally inconsistent with criminal status. The elevated position of the site, on ‘The Mount’, suggests that the cemetery was reserved for individuals with high social status. Decapitation as a method of execution was often seen by Roman society as a mark of status and respect, in opposition to hanging or crucifixion.

A very popular hypothesis is that the dead from Driffield Terrace were gladiators. This is supported by the fact that many skeletons showed trauma that likely stemmed from violence and combat. The finding of a pair of ankle shackles, as well as possible canine bites on one individual, is highly suggestive of gladiatorial combat. However, there is no evidence that gladiator fights ever took place in Eboracum, and no arena has been discovered. The canine bites may have been caused by a big cat, a bear, or a wild boar; further specialist analysis is needed to confirm their origin.

Much of the evidence suggests that the individuals buried at Driffield Terrace were part of the Roman army. The demographic profile of the cemetery is strongly suggestive of this hypothesis. Additionally, many individuals were involved in violence. The taller-than-average stature of the dead may be due to the Roman army’s minimum height requirements. The results of the isotopic analysis, showing that the burials came from multiple different areas of Europe, are also typical of the Roman army, which was highly mobile and comprised of individuals from a variety of regions.

In the media
The discovery of the cemetery in 2004-2005 and the subsequent studies carried out on it generated large amounts of media attention from news outlets such as BBC News, The Guardian, the Daily Mail, and National Geographic. The media response largely focused on the hypothesis that the cemetery was destined for gladiators.

At least three documentary films were based of the findings at Driffield Terrace. The site was featured in season 25 of the BBC documentary Timewatch: the episode, aired in 2006, was titled The Mystery of the Headless Romans. Gladiators: Back From the Dead, a TV movie, aired in 2010 on UK Channel 4. The film attempted to identify specific types of gladiators by examining the physical trauma seen in certain skeletons from Driffield Terrace. The Headless Gladiators of York aired in 2017 as part of season 2 of the British documentary series Ancient Mysteries. These television adaptations have occasionally been described as exaggerated and based on unfounded information.

Gladiators, a travelling museum exhibition created by the Jorvik Group, was dedicated to the burials found in the cemetery and their interpretations.