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Crowd psychology

Crowd psychology, also known as mob psychology, is a branch of social psychology. Social psychologists have developed several theories for explaining the ways in which the psychology of the crowd differs from and interacts with that of the individuals within it. Major theorists in crowd psychology include Gustave Le Bon, Gabriel Tarde, Sigmund Freud and Steve Reicher. This field relates to the behaviors and thought processes of both the individual crowd members and the crowd as an entity.[1] Crowd behavior is heavily influenced by the loss of responsibility of the individual and the impression of universality of behavior, both of which increase with the size of the crowd.[2][3] Contents [hide] 1 Origins 2 Types of crowds 3 Theoretical perspectives 3.1 Gustave Le Bon 3.2 Freudian theory 3.3 Deindividuation theory 3.4 Convergence theory 3.5 Emergent norm theory 3.6 Social identity theory 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Origins[edit]

The psychological study of crowd phenomena began in the decades just prior to 1900 as European culture was imbued with thoughts of the fin de siècle. This "modern" urban culture perceived that they were living in a new and different age. They witnessed marvelous new inventions and experienced life in new ways. The population, now living in densely packed industrialized cities such as Milan and Paris, witnessed the development of the light bulb, radio, photography, moving picture shows, the telegraph, the bicycle, the telephone and the railroad system. They experienced a faster pace of life and viewed human life as segmented and so they designated each of these phases of life with a new name. They created new concepts like "The Adolescent", "Kindergarten", "The Vacation", "camping in Nature", "the 5 minute segment" and "Travel for the sake of pleasure" to describe these new ways of experiencing life. Likewise, the abstract concept of "The Crowd" appeared as a new phenomenon simultaneously in Paris, France, and Milan, the largest city in the Kingdom of Italy. Legal reformers motivated by Darwin's evolutionary theory, particularly in the Kingdom of Italy, argued that the social and legal systems of Europe had been founded on antiquated notions of natural reason or Christian morality and ignored the irrevocable biology laws of human nature. Their goal was to bring social laws into harmony with biological laws. In pursuit of this goal they developed the social science of criminal anthropology, which is tasked with the mission of changing the emphasis from one of the study of legal procedures to one of studying the criminal. "Criminal anthropology," writes Signor Sergi, "studies the delinquent in his natural place, that is to say, in the field of biology and pathology".[4][5] The Italian Cesare Lombroso, professor of forensic medicine and hygiene in Turin, greatly advanced their agenda in 1878, when he published L'uomo delinquente, a highly influential book which went through five editions. The book, published in English in 1900 under the title Criminal Man, solidified the links between social evolutionary theories and the fear of crowds with its concept of the "born" criminal as the savage in the midst of civilized society. The book influenced both European and American legal experts interested in assigning responsibility to individuals engaged in dubious behavior while engaged within a crowd. The first debate in crowd psychology began in Rome at the first International Congress of Criminal Anthropology on 16 November 1885. The meeting was dominated by Cesare Lombroso and his fellow Italians who emphasized the biological determinates. "Lombroso detailed before the first congress his theories of the physical anomalies of criminals and his classification of criminals as 'born criminals,' criminals by occasion and mattoids. Ferri expressed his view of crime as degeneration more profound than insanity, for in most insane persons the primitive moral sense has survived the wreck of their intelligence. Along similar lines were the remarks of Benedickt, Sergi and Marro." A weak response was offered by the French, who put forward an environmental theory of human psychology. "M. Anguilli called attention to the importance of the influence of the social environment upon crime. Professor Alexandre Lacassagne thought that the atavistic and degenerative theories as held by the Italian school were exaggerations and false interpretations of the facts, and that the important factor was the social environment."[6] In Paris between 10 August and 17 August 1889, the Italian school received a stronger rebuke of their biological theories during the 2nd International Congress of Criminal Anthropology. A radical divergence in the views between the Italian and the French schools was reflected in the proceedings. "Professor Lombroso laid stress upon epilepsy in connection with his theory of the 'born criminal.' Professor Léonce Pierre Manouvrier characterized Lombroso's theory as nothing but the exploded science of phrenology. The anomalies observed by Lombroso were met with in honest men as well as criminals, Manouvrier claimed, and there is no physical difference between them. Baron Raffaele Garofalo, Drill, Alexandre Lacassagne and Benedikt opposed Lombroso's theories in whole or in part. Pugliese found the cause of crime in the failure of the criminal to adapt himself to his social surroundings, and Benedikt, with whom Tarde agreed, held that physical defects were not marks of the criminal qua criminal."[7] It is in this context that you have a debate between Scipio Sighele, an Italian lawyer and Gabriel Tarde, a French magistrate on how to determine criminal responsibility in the crowd and hence who to arrest. (Sighele, 1892; Tarde, 1890, 1892, 1901) [6] Literature on crowds and crowd behavior appeared as early as 1841 with the publication of Charles MacKay's book Extraordinary Delusions and the Madness of Crowds.[8] The attitude towards crowds underwent an adjustment with the publication of Hippolyte Taine’s, six-volume tome The Origins of Contemporary France (1875). In particular Taine's work helped to change the opinions of his contemporaries on the actions taken by the crowds during the 1789 Revolution. Many Europeans held him in great esteem. While it is difficult to directly link his works to crowd behavior it may be said that his thought stimulated further study of crowd behavior. However, it was not until the latter half of the 19th century that scientific interest in the field gained momentum. French physician and anthropologist Gustave Le Bon became its most influential theorist.[1][9][10][11] Types of crowds[edit]

There is limited research into the types of crowd and crowd membership and there is no consensus as to the classification of types of crowds. Two recent scholars, Momboisse (1967)[12] and Berlonghi (1995)[13] focused upon purpose of existence to differentiate among crowds. Momboisse developed a system of four types: casual, conventional, expressive and aggressive. Berlonghi classified crowds as spectator, demonstrator, or escaping, to correlate to the purpose for gathering. Another approach to classifying crowds is sociologist Herbert Blumer's system of emotional intensity. He distinguishes four types of crowds: casual, conventional, expressive, and acting. His system is dynamic in nature. That is, a crowd changes its level of emotional intensity over time and therefore be classed in any one of the four types. Generally, researchers in crowd psychology have focused on the negative aspects of crowds,[9] but not all crowds are volatile or negative in nature. For example, in the beginning of the socialist movement crowds were asked to put on their Sunday dress and march silently down the street. A more modern example involves the sit-ins during the Civil Rights Movement. Crowds can reflect and challenge the held ideologies of their sociocultural environment. They can also serve integrative social functions, creating temporary communities.[2][9] Crowds can be active (mobs) or passive (audiences). Active crowds can be further divided into aggressive, escapist, acquisitive, or expressive mobs.[2] Aggressive mobs are often violent and outwardly focused. Examples are football riots and the L.A. Riots of 1992. Escapist mobs are characterized by a large number of panicked people trying to get out of a dangerous situation. These types of mobs are why it is illegal to yell “Fire!” in a crowded theater. Acquisitive mobs occur when large numbers of people are fighting for limited resources, such as the crowds who looted after Hurricane Katrina. An expressive mob is any other large group of people gathering for an active purpose. Civil disobedience, rock concerts, and religious revivals all fall under this category.[2] Theoretical perspectives[edit]

Gustave Le Bon ---

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Feb6/2014 - Chronotype - From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Not to be confused with Chronotope or Chronotrope. Chronotype is an attribute of human beings, reflecting at what time of the day their physical functions (hormone level, body temperature, cognitive faculties, eating and sleeping) are active, change or reach a certain level. This phenomenon is commonly reduced to sleeping habits only, referring to people as "larks" and "owls" which refer to, respectively, morning people (those who wake up early and are most alert in the first part of the day) and evening people (those who are most alert in the late evening hours and prefer to go to bed late). Humans are normally diurnal creatures, that is to say they are active in the daytime. As with most other diurnal animals, human activity-rest patterns are endogenously controlled by biological clocks with a circadian period. Normal variation in chronotypes encompasses sleep/wake cycles that are from about two hours earlier to about two hours later than average.[1] Extremes outside of this range can cause a person difficulty in participating in normal work, school, and social activities. If a person's "lark" or (more commonly) "owl" tendencies are strong and intractable to the point of disallowing normal participation in society, the person is considered to have a circadian rhythm sleep disorder.[2] History[edit]

The 20th century saw greatly increased interest in and research on all questions about sleep. Tremendous strides have been made in molecular, neural and medical aspects of biological rhythmicity. Physiology professor Nathaniel Kleitman's 1939 book Sleep and Wakefulness, revised 1963,[3] summarized the existing knowledge of sleep, and it was he who proposed the existence of a basic rest-activity cycle. Kleitman, with his students including William C. Dement and Eugene Aserinsky, continued his research throughout the 1900s. O. Öquist's 1970 thesis at the Department of Psychology, University of Göteborg, Sweden, marks the beginning of modern research into chronotypes, and is entitled Kartläggning av individuella dygnsrytmer, or "Charting Individual Circadian Rhythms." Olov Östberg modified Öquist's questionnaire and in 1976, together with J.A. (Jim) Horne, he published the Morningness-eveningness questionnaire, MEQ,[4] which still is used and referred to in virtually all research on this topic. Researchers in many countries have worked on validating the MEQ with regard to their local cultures. A revision of the scoring of the MEQ as well as a component analysis was done by Jacques Taillard et al. in 2004,[5] working in France with employed people over the age of 50. Previously the MEQ had been validated only for subjects of university age. Several other assessment tools have been developed: the Circadian Type Inventory (Folkard 1987); the Composite Scale of Morningness (Smith 1989); the Lark-Owl Chronotype Indicator, LOCI (Roberts 1999); and the Munich Chronotype Questionnaire, MCTQ (Roenneberg 2003).[6] Some of these are designed with particular situations in mind, such as shift work scheduling, travel fatigue and jet lag, athletic performance or best timing of medical procedures. Characteristics[edit]

Most people are neither evening nor morning types but lie somewhere in between. Estimates vary,[7] but up to half are either morning or evening people. People who share a chronotype, morningness or eveningness, have similar activity-pattern timing: sleep, appetite, exercise, study etc. Researchers in the field of chronobiology look for objective markers by which to measure the chronotype spectrum. Horne and Östberg, 1976, found that morning types had a higher daytime temperature with an earlier peak time than evening types and that they went to sleep and awoke earlier, while no differences in sleep lengths were found. They also note that age should be considered in assessments of morningness and eveningness, noting how a "bed time of 23:30 may be indicative of a Morning type within a student population, but might be more related to an Evening type in the 40–60 years age group" (Horne & Östberg, 1976, p. 109). Clodoré et al., France, 1986,[8] found differences in alertness between morning and evening types after a two hour sleep reduction. Gibertini et al., US, 1999,[9] assessed blood levels of the hormone melatonin, finding that the melatonin acrophase (the time at which the peak of a rhythm occurs[10]) was strongly related to circadian type, while amplitude was not. They note that morning types evidence a more rapid decline in melatonin levels after the peak than do evening types. Duffy et al., US, 1999,[11] investigated "changes in the phase relationship between endogenous circadian rhythms and the sleep-wake cycle," and found that while evening types woke at a later clock hour than morning types, morning types woke at a later circadian phase. Baehr et al., US, 2000,[12] found that, in young adults, the daily body temperature minimum occurred at about 4 a.m. for morning types but at about 6 a.m. for evening types. This minimum occurred at approximately the middle of the eight hour sleep period for morning types, but closer to waking in evening types. Evening types had a lower nocturnal temperature. The temperature minimum occurred about a half hour earlier in women than in men. Similar results were found by Mongrain et al. in Canada, 2004.[13] Zavada et al., The Netherlands, 2005,[14] show that the exact hour of mid-sleep on free (non-work) days may be the best marker for sleep-based assessments of chronotype; it correlates well with such physiological markers as Dim-Light Melatonin Onset (DLMO) and the minimum of the daily cortisol rhythm. The researchers also state that each chronotype category "contains a similar portion of short and long sleepers." Giampietro and Cavallera, Italy, 2006,[15] refer to many studies in their examination of the relationship among chronotypes, personality and creative thinking. Paine et al., New Zealand, 2006,[16] conclude that "morningness/eveningness preference is largely independent of ethnicity, gender, and socioeconomic position, indicating that it is a stable characteristic that may be better explained by endogenous factors." Chung et al., Taiwan, 2009,[17] studied sleep quality in shift-working nurses and found that "the strongest predictor of sleep quality was morningness-eveningness not the shift schedule or shift pattern," as "evening types working on changing shifts had higher risk of poor sleep quality compared to morning types." References[edit]

Jump up ^ Logie, Bruce. "Larks and Owls". Retrieved 2007-11-02. Jump up ^ American Academy of Sleep Medicine International Classification of Sleep Disorders, Revised Edition 2001. Jump up ^ Kleitman, Nathaniel (1939, 1963). Sleep and Wakefulness. The University of Chicago Press. Jump up ^ Horne, J.A.; Östberg, O. (1976). "A self-assessment questionnaire to determine morningness-eveningness in human circadian rhythms". Int J Chronobiol 4 (2): 97–110. . Jump up ^ Taillard, Jacques; et al. (2004). "Validation of Horne and Ostberg Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire in a Middle-Aged Population of French Workers". Journal of Biological Rhythms 19 (1): 76–86. doi:10.1177/0748730403259849. . Retrieved 2007-11-02. Jump up ^ Roenneberg, T.; Kuehnle, T.; Juda, M.; Kantermann, T.; Allebrandt, K.; Gordijn, M.; Merrow, M. (December 2007). "Epidemiology of the human circadian clock". Sleep Med Rev. 11 (6): 429–38. doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2007.07.005. . Jump up ^ Schur, Carolyn (1994). "excerpt". Birds of a Different Feather. Saskatoon, Canada: Schur Goode Associates. ISBN 0-9698190-0-5. Retrieved 2009-07-20. Jump up ^ Clodoré, M.; Foret, J.; Benoit, O. (1986). "Diurnal variation in subjective and objective measures of sleepiness: the effects of sleep reduction and circadian type". Chronobiol Int. 3 (4): 255–63. doi:10.3109/07420528609079543. . Jump up ^ Gibertini, M.; Graham, C.; Cook, M.R. (1999). "Self-report of circadian type reflects the phase of the melatonin rhythm". Biol psychol. 50 (1): 19–33. doi:10.1016/S0301-0511(98)00049-0. . Retrieved 2007-11-02. Jump up ^ "Dictionary of Circadian Physiology". Circadian Rhythm Laboratory, University of South Carolina Salkehatchie, Walterboro campus. Jump up ^ Duffy, J.F.; Dijk, D.J.; Hall, E.F.; Czeisler, C.A. (1999). "Relationship of endogenous circadian melatonin and temperature rhythms to self-reported preference for morning or evening activity in young and older people". J Investig Med 47 (3): 141–50. . Jump up ^ Baehr, E.K.; Revelle, W.; Eastman, C.I. (June 2000). "Individual differences in the phase and amplitude of the human circadian temperature rhythm: with an emphasis on morningness-eveningness". J Sleep Res 9 (2): 117–27. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2869.2000.00196.x.. Jump up ^ Mongrain, V.; Lavoie, S.; Selmaoui, B.; Paquet, J.; Dumont, M. (June 2004). "Phase relationships between sleep-wake cycle and underlying circadian rhythms in Morningness-Eveningness". J. Biol. Rhythms 19 (3): 248–57. doi:10.1177/0748730404264365. . Jump up ^ Zavada, Andrei; Gordijn, Beersma; Daan, Roenneberg (2005). "Comparison of the Munich Chronotype Questionnaire with the Horne-Östberg's Morningness-Eveningness Score" (PDF). Chronobiol. Int. 22 (2): 267–78. doi:10.1081/CBI-200053536. . Retrieved 2007-11-02. Jump up ^ Giampietro, M.; Cavallera, G.M. (2006). "Morning and evening types and creative thinking". Elsevier Ltd. Retrieved 2007-11-02. Jump up ^ Paine, Sarah-Jane; Gander, Philippa H.; Travier, Noemie (2006). "The Epidemology of Morningness/Eveningness: Influence of Age, Gender, Ethnicity, and Socioeconomic Factors in Adults (30–49 Years)". Journal of Biological Rhythms 21 (1): 68–76. doi:10.1177/0748730405283154. . Retrieved 2007-11-02. Jump up ^ Chung, M.H.; Chang, F.M.; Yang, C.C.; Kuo, T.B.; Hsu, N. (January 2009). "Sleep quality and morningness-eveningness of shift nurses" (Abstract). Journal of Clinical Nursing 18 (2): 279–284. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2702.2007.02160.x. ISSN 1365-2702. . Retrieved 2009-01-17. v t e Ethology and parts of the day Photoperiodism • Light pollution Diurnality Diurnal cycle Nocturnality Cathemeral Light Ethology.svg Crepuscular Matutinal Vespertine Circadian rhythm Chronotype Diel vertical migration Solunar theory [hide] v t e Psychophysiology: Sleep and sleep disorders (F51 and G47 / 307.4 and 327) Sleep stages Rapid eye movement (REM) Non-rapid eye movement Slow-wave Brain waves Alpha wave Beta wave Gamma wave Delta wave Theta rhythm K-complex Sleep spindle Sensorimotor rhythm Mu rhythm Sleep disorders Dyssomnia Insomnia Narcolepsy Sleep apnea Obesity hypoventilation syndrome Ondine's curse Hypersomnia Kleine–Levin syndrome Sleep state misperception Circadian rhythm disorder Advanced sleep phase disorder Delayed sleep phase disorder Irregular sleep–wake rhythm Jet lag Non-24-hour sleep–wake disorder Shift work sleep disorder Parasomnia Catathrenia Night terror Rapid eye movement behavior disorder Sleepwalking Somniloquy Other Night eating syndrome Nocturia Nocturnal myoclonus Bruxism Benign phenomena Dream Exploding head syndrome False awakening Hypnagogia / Sleep onset Hypnic jerk Lucid dream Nightmare Nocturnal clitoral tumescence Nocturnal emission Nocturnal penile tumescence Sleep paralysis Somnolence Related topics Somnology Bed Bunk bed Four-poster bed Futon Daybed Hammock Mattress Sleeping bag Bed bug Bedding Bedroom Bedtime Bedtime toy Bedtime story Caffeine nap Chronotype Dream journal Excessive daytime sleepiness Hypnopompic state Lullaby Sleep induction Microsleep Nap Nightwear Polyphasic sleep Polysomnography Power nap Second wind Siesta Sleep and creativity Sleep and learning Sleep debt Sleep deprivation Sleep diary Sleep hygiene Sleep inertia Sleep medicine Sleeping while on duty Sleepover Snoring "Sleeping sickness"1 1 Not a sleep disorder. M: PSO/PSI mepr dsrd (o, p, m, p, a, d, s), sysi/epon, spvo proc (eval/thrp), drug (N5A/5B/5C/6A/6B/6D) M: CNS anat (n/s/m/p/4/e/b/d/c/a/f/l/g)/phys/devp noco (m/d/e/h/v/s)/cong/tumr, sysi/epon, injr proc, drug (N1A/2AB/C/3/4/7A/B/C/D) Categories: Sleep physiologyCircadian rhythmSleep

-Tour de France- Tour de France logo.svg Race details Date	July Region	France and nearby countries Local name(s)	Le Tour de France (French) Nickname(s)	La Grande Boucle Discipline	Road Competition	Professional Type	Stage race (Grand Tour) Organiser	Amaury Sport Organisation Race director	Christian Prudhomme History First edition	1903 Editions	100 (2013) First winner	 Maurice Garin (FRA) Most wins Jacques Anquetil (FRA) Bernard Hinault (FRA) Eddy Merckx (BEL) Miguel Indurain (ESP)[n 1] (5-time winners[n 2]) Most recent	 Chris Froome (GBR)

For the first time this year, there is a women’s race called La Course by Le Tour de France. It will coincide with the final stage of the 2014 Tour de France on July 27. The race will be a circuit in Paris.

For the curious, here’s the full schedule of the Tour de France:

-4	July 8	Le Touquet-Paris-Plage	Lille	163.5 km	Hill

July10/2014

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize

July25/2014

-July 25/2014

= Neoplatonism =

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoplatonism

wikitravel art media - the creative cloud

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ram_Khamhaeng#The_Ramkhamhaeng_stele

-21 Aug 2014

Senate Conservatives Fund

The Senate Conservatives Fund is a United States political action committee that supports Republican Party politicians, primarily in the United States Senate. Founded by then-South Carolina Senator Jim DeMint in 2008, the leadership PAC is aligned with the Tea Party movement and supports right-wing, small government, Tea Party allied Republican politicians in primary challenges and general elections. The Senate Conservatives Fund also seeks to abolish the IRS and defund and repeal the Affordable Care Act. Republican leaders have criticized the fund for targeting Senate Republicans.[1][2]

-26 August 2014

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kusha_(Ramayana)