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Questions
Tycho crazy Halley hollow Earth Mars rotation Edward Barnard married a mom, Io UB1 name Albion Venus billions South Africa geodetic mission

deMeo
2.2 The Historical Perspective Initial measurements from the 1940s through the 1970s found that the surface brightness and colors of asteroids trend from medium albedo and moderate spectral slopes (S-complex) for bodies in the inner part of the Main Asteroid Belt to lower albedo and neutral spectral slopes (C-complex) toward the outer part of the Main Belt (Fisher 1941, Kitamura 1959, Wood & Kuiper 1963, Chapman et al., 1971, Chapman et al., 1975). The diversity was a great surprise and the trend with distance motivated further observations.

1980s: the asteroids were thought to have formed in place and to have represented the thermal gradient

The absence of chondrites that formed later than 3-4 Myr after CAIs suggests that planetesimal formation effectively ceased at this time in the chondrite forming regions, possibly marking the dissipation of the gas disk. If the carbonaceous chondrites were scattered into the Asteroid Belt from the outer Solar System, this must have occurred after the formation of the youngest carbonaceous chondrites.

Verma
1794: stones fell in Siena

Ambrosio Sodani used a magnet to determine they were made of iron, a few hundred had fallen over 47 km2

hot to the touch

Laxxaro Spelanzani, studying visuvius eruption drew the same conclusion as Aristotle; the rocks must have been picked up by a tornado and dropped from the eruption

Sodani disagreed, pointing out that the rocks' comoisition was different from volcanic; concluded they had to be from space

one one person Ernst Chladni, one of the founders of acoustics, agreed, concluding they were probably remnants from planet fromation or debris from cosmic collisions, and published his thoughts

he was universally scorned

Even Isaac |Newton, who had done so much to unify the terrestrial and the cosmic worlds, considered the idea of celestial objects interacting with earth absurd.

Alexander von Humboldt, one of the most forward thinking scientists of his time, assumed chladni had been "hit on the head by one of his stones"

fINALLY, on the 26th of April 1803, in Laigle France, a meteor fall of such intensity occurred that it was seen by hundreds of French officials. A scientist, Jean baptist Biot, determined that they must have fallen from the sky.

Meteroite craters display raised rims from the debris ejected by the impact

impactites (globules of melted rock

shocked quartz

rare elements such as iriidium

No stony meteorites have produced craters; likely because they break up in the atmosphere

Berenger assumed the meteor crater was meteoric, and assumed that a megaton-sized bolide must lay beneath it. Before even visiting it, he formed a mining company and purchased the land, and spent 600 k drilling it. He found nothing but traces of pure iron, nicke. and platinum

major tourist attraction, and the berigner family runs it to this day

It was the similarly quixotic dream of endless iron that in 1921 set the newly formed soviet union on a quest to the farthest wilds of siberia to see just what had happened

From 1927 until 1942, when he died in a Russian POW camp, Leonid Kulik dedicated his life to finding the meteorite

After a pre-revolutionary young adulthood spent partly in academia and partly in prison due to revolutionary activities, he joined a mineralogical expedition in the urals and then the Mineralogical museum at teh st petersberg academy of sciences

Then like nearly everyone else, he was sent to the eastern front. He stayed in the army until 1920, when he returned to the museum

noted for being outspoken and unafraid to voice his opinion when convinced he's right.

In his first expedition, in 1921, Kulik was handed a news report from 1910, explaining that in June 1910, a large stone block, roughly 12 cubic m in size, had fallen near Tomsk a few metres from the railway line

every particular of this article was wrong- there was no meteorite, but accounts of a meteor observed at that time were widespread, particularly after Kulik published a revised account in the local paper

For some reason deciding that February was the perfect time to travel to remotest siberia, Kulik spent 5 days on a horse-drawn sledge, and then another three after a stopover, before reaching the farthest point of Soviet civiliztion, Vanavara, on the stony tunguka river. The soviet authorities had recommended a local guide, but the guide refused to take them to "the thunder god's home".

thanjks to gritty determination and some masochistic bartering, the guide agreed to take them. Already sick from scurvy, he had to hack his way through untamed forest until he suddenly found it. a field of fallen trees stretching to the horizon.

an oval area 70 km wide

half metre thick trees snapped like twigs, their trunks hurled metres away to the south

ripples in the ground like shock waves, even scorching not from a typical forest fire, but from the hot wind of impact

Kulik cited posterity as the primary reason to continue, and the Academy of sciences reacted accordingly, giving him barely enough funds to arrive back at the site

When his starving, scurvied assistant reappeared asking for more funds, the story of the bold russian scientist braving the wilds of siberia to find a meteorite made Kulik a national hero and an international celebrity

Kulik gave speeches explaining just what would have happened if this thing had landed in western europe. Audiences were thrilled. anhillated belgium, taken out all of southern england

Kulik finally got all the funds he wanted for a proper expedition, and a fourth in 1939, but failed to find any meteorite or crater.

He died of typhus in a German POW camp in 1942

Evgeny Krinov, the metoerite had neer reached the ground, but had vaporised km above it

Fered Whipple had suggested a comet, thought he doubted it. but no meteorite fragmetns had been found, and a volatile object exploding in the air was still the most likely suspect

In 1975, Fred Whipple calculated that the chances of a comet of such size hitting the Earth in a century was about 1 in 200 thousand and suggested it was instead a lowdensity asteroid

Levy
1993 Palomar Carolyn: "I don't know what I've got, but it looks like a squashed comet".

gene had a hunch it was physically as well as angularly close to Jupiter, and that Jupiter's gravity had disrupted it

March 23, 1993: Palomar Asteroid and comet survey

At the age of three, Gene had concluded that Santa didn't exist.

By the age of 10, Gene had developed a passion for rocks, and had entered a college-level course on geology that included field trips to trilobite-riddled Devonian rock strata

too young to fight in the war, and with the geology department virtually abandoned with its senior staff being drafted- Eugene became a cheerleader

e to the x to the x to the x! Sliide rule! Tech tech tech! cotan tangent cosine sine! 3.14159 sliide rule

That the other side had no idea what it meant was part of the point.

During his 1946 senior year, Gene took nearly every geology course on the list to make up for lost time; his advisors nicknamed him supergene (a pun on ore deposits formed by superficial processes). Superman had only been in existence for eight years.

He graduated at 19.

In 1947 he joined a Caltech camp in New Mexico one of the worlds great open geological textbooks.

At the age of 20, in 1948, he joined the USGS to search for uranium

He wanted to be one of the first people on the Moon. After all, who would be better suited to explore the moon than a geologist?

Most still considered the moon's craters volcanic, though there was a growing suspicion that they were due to collisions

Shoemaker's courtship of Carolyn was mostly long distance at first, though they were eventually married. To avoid a similar situation in their marriage, Shoemaker began taking his wife into the field, where they slept under the stars "if you want to get to know someone, go camping with them"

In 1952, while doing fieldwork in the Navajo reservation, gene decided to prospect around Coon Butte, and its attendant crater, called Meteor crater because of the meteorites in the surrounding area.

Grove Karl Gilbert, a turn of the 20th century geologist, concluded that, since no magnetic anomalies had been detected, and since the crater lay in a previously volcanic area, it had to be volcanic, specifically the result of a gigantic geyser

gradualism vs catastrophism stephen j gould paleontology punctuated equilibria plate tectonics triumph of gradualism

what occurs now, occured then

grove carl gilbert 1893; the moon's craters wre imapct based

Gene could fix a car in a desert and name his cars Jezebel and sweet sue

Not good with his young children

studies of nuclear blast sites showed him that their geology was identical to that of meteor crater

an attempt to gain a supply of plutonium by blowing up a megaton nuclear device. Obviously in hindsight, gene concluded it wouldn't work.

nearing the end of his thesis on colorado plateau salt structures, he dropped everything and started studying the moon. Missed deadlines would be a lifetime feature of an unworldly man

leonardo da vinci syndrome never fiinishing anything becayuse distracted by others presentation on metoeor crater, topic for a thesis?

Edward Chao identified coesite (a recently produced high-pressure form of quartz) at Meteor crater, proving that it was of impact origin

Chao Shoemaker madsen all shared credit, but Gene was still suffering from losing his father. He wnet to Rieskessel, a 24 im basin thought to be volcanic. In one minute of observation, gene showed the shocked rocks were impact formed. teh stone of the towns cathedral was made of suevite, a potential impact-formed rock. Samples confirmed coesite in the suevite. This meant that whatever had caused the basin impact was gigantic; km sized

USGS formed an astrogeological studies group- birth of astrogeology. studiyng impact formaiton on the moon

1961: Moon program launched. Moved to Washington to be closer to NASA. A child's friend died. Diagnosed with Addison's disease, a fatal illness at the time. Treated with cortisone, Left washington

Setting up a astrogeological station at Flagstaff, which he loved. But planes would not travel there often enough, so he learned to fly. Addison's denied him a license, and the possibility of going to the Moon

Gene was part of the Ranger program; the first attempt to gain closeup images of the Moon. The first six attempts failed. The only optimist on the team was Gene

To mass jubilation at the nearly broken JPL, ranger 7 succeeded, revealing the finer structure of a lunar impact ray (basically more craters)

Somewhat ironically, gene ended up being selected to head the committee to evaluate the scientific qualifications of potential astronauts

dana
The near side of the moon has 30,000 craters; Earth 200.

Shoemaker
Metoeor crater was originally called Coon mountain or coon butte. No one knows why. Some walked around its rim for as logn as a year without realising it was a crater

Meteor crater, proposed in 1906 by geologist herman fairchild of the university of Rochester approved by the US government in 1946

It should more properly be called Meteorite crater

tunguska was a turning point

sikhote-alin impact siberia 1947

metorite wiped out the dinosaurs

grove carl gilbert hypothesised that the craters on the moon were caused by impacts, not volcanism

did npt believe meteor crater was a meteor

if cratersw were caused solely by impacts, then they would be far more varied in shape than they are, their uniform circularity must be caused by accompanying explosions

Hershcel claimed to have seen the volcanoes on the moo erupt

Galileo called the crater's spots

"larger than the restm and perfectly round in shape ... enclosed on all sides by mountains arranged exactly in a circle."

Proctor was largely ignored, maysmith and carpenter 1874 ebcame the standard, espoused volcanism

"plain to everyone and have been seen throughout the ages" vs " so numerous as to occur all over the lunar surface"

different sizes differentshapes, but mostly circular

Robert hooke obsereved that alabaster, after being boiled, reformed with pits similar to the moon, suggesting that they were "vulcans" as on earth

Hooke et al interplanetary space was a void; nothing existed to impact the moon

Between Cassini in 1680 and tobias mayer in 1775, no new maps of the Moon were created

reports of stones falling from the sky were usually laughed off as stones that had been struck by lightning, mostly because the reports of falling stones were almost always from peasants

"falling stars are composed of inflammatory, viscous materials. Some of them disappear during their fall, while others indeed fall to the earth, drawn by their own weight ... thrown from the ethereal region in a straight line like very small comets" Kepler

April 26 1803: 3000 atones fell near the French village of laigle, reported hundreds of people but, importantly by scientists jean-baptiste biot, scientist and French National Instatute

Proctor, impact origin for lunar craters, 1870s

Proctor advocated the accretion model of the solar system

"It is impossible for such bubbles to form ion the scale of the lunar craters"

"It is impossible to recognize a real resemblance between any terrestrial feature and the crateriferous surface of the moon."

"the solar system had its birth, and long maintained its fires, under the impact and collisions of bodies gathered in outer space

"it may seem indeed, at a first view, too wild and fanciful to suggest that the multitudinous craters on the Moon have been caused by the plash of meteoric rain- and I should certainly not care to maintain that as the true theory of their origin; and yet it must be remembered that no plausible theory has yet been urged respecting this remarkable feature of the moon's surface"£

Iff volcanic why so many? And how without water?

the circular shapes could be explained by the plastic surface of the young moon closing around the impact site

Lucy
Only working within one language

privileging the categories of one language or culture over another

no evidence for individual cognition

Experience comes before language; language merely maps onto experience to pass it to others

or

language is transformative

as of 1996 little actual research

Because English treats days and tyears as object nouns, English speakers treat days and years as countable objects

Hopi grammar does not give rise to an abstract notion of time

no systematic cross-linguistic comparisons

Yucatec demands that numbers denoting objects contain descriptors (one long thin candle, as opposed to one candle, one thin wax instead of candle)

English speakers showed a marked preference for shaped based comparisons when Yucatec speakers preferred substance based comparisons