User:Serendipodous/indigo/page 21

woodruff
"Frankly, the great ones of the thirteenth century do not seem to have held a very high opinion of him or to have had any desire to walk the paths through which he would like to have led them"

Pope Clement IV asked for an expansion of his ideas (improvement of schools, better grasp of the scientific method) but died before he recieved an answer

We do not even know the date he died

In 1385 Peter of Trau a Dalmatian, wrote that Bacon, through his experiments with condensing the air, froze a bridge of ice over the English Channel and walked across it. and through his study of optics, I bult a mirror that allowed anyone to see any event anywhere in the world

In a 1589 play, he engages in a magic duel with the court magician of Ealanor of Castille, future wife of Edward Longshanks, in which he apparentyl sends a conjured hercules off to Hapsberg.

"My lord king, what is that which is most hurtful and fearful to those who sail across the sea?" "Stones and rocks" (Pierre des Roches)

Henry III

We don't know where or even when Roger bacon was born, though it was somewhere in the West Country, probably Ilchester in Somerset, sometime in the early 13th century, between 1210 and 1220

At a time when people were taken with the idea of cataloguing and putting to bed all human knowledge, Bacon was intent on experimenting to learn new knowledge.

Bacon read the classics assiduously but considered them a starting point rather than holy writ

"Just as brute beasts are led by any kind of halter ... abd di bit perceive whither they are being led and why, so not a few, captive and bound by beast-like credulity, mere authority leads to dangerous paths"

Bacon namechecks most of the famed arabic scholars popular in europe at the time (Avicenna, Averroes, aLHAZEN)

the first tentative colleges were being established, as education shifted out of the church

Students entered at 12 and began by learning the alphabet

Bacon bemoaned the state of Biblical education, and encouraged the study of Hebrew

Bacon would have been horrified at the idea of a conflict between science and religion. To him experiments were merely a branch of theology

in his past life, bacon had spent 2000 pounds on experimental apparatus. No more

His experiments often involved phenomena that were considered diabolic, which led to his superiors keeping a watch on him#

When pope clement asked for his thoughts, he had to apologise and say that the Order were keeping him on bread and water and not allowing any publications to the outside world

"so far ahead of his time that he was scarcely able to influence it at all"

Bacon considered himself primarily a theologian- his aim was to improve ecclesiastical education

Franciscans were not known for learning and the renunciation of all possessions, but bacon, like St Francis, wanted a wholesale root and branch reform

1267 published opus maius

Clement had been an acquaintance of Roger Bacon, and as pope was able to override his superiors.

"A man who should prove by adequate reasoning that fire burns and injures things and destroys them. his mind wold not be satisfied thereby, nor would he avoid fire, until he placed his hand or some combustible substance in the fire, so that he might prove by experiment that which reasoning taught. But once it has experience of combustion the mind is assured and rests in the light of truth. Thus reasoning is not enough; one needs experience"

Like kepler, galileo and Newton, he was an astrologer and a believer in astrology.


 * He had little patience for the "incantations, conjurations, superstitious sacrifices and various frauds"

\He noticed how the sun or lack of it radically changed human culture

It is speculated, based on some presumptuous measuremetns of plaentary diameters, that he might have made a telescope

"concerning the corruptions of the calendar, which is intolerable to all wisdom, the horror all astronomy, and a laughing stock from the computors point of viewm so that all students in astronmy, computation and syucbh things are amazed that syuch abominable falsehood should be sustained, but it si impossib,le that it should be were it not for the fact that those who have authority to attend to the correction are not practiced in astronomy, computation and suchlike. for none perceiving suhc an abomination could allow it to go on. so it is up to any wise Christian who has studied these things, to show the reason of htis corpuition and point to the remedies not that such a one should presume to deliver a corrected calendar, for the reason that general council had forbidden anyone to change the calendar without any license from the apostolic see. And quite right too, but the See ought to remove this monstrous thing from the Church. ... At first the popes did try to keep it corrected; many popes so ordaining, but they became preocupied with oppression and heresies and their efforts came to nothing

Shackel
The Roman civil day began and ended at midnight.

Great clock hours: all 24 hours listed

Small clock (french) hours: 12 and 12. Most of Europe by the 17th century

Many clocks were rewound to account for the shift in hour length, often employing sophisticated tables.

The Italian clock was divided into 24 equal parts, beginning at dusk, which means that, as dusk approached and retreated, the day could be shifted by up to four and a half hours. Babylonian hours were the same except at sunrise

In a 1766m fable called The Adventure of Goody Two Shoes, Bacon offers advice on whether to buy a Considering Cap or an always full wallet, and tells his correspondent to buy the former.

Barnett
Clocks createde the idea of night and day asa single unit; most counted the day from sunrise to sunset

without artificial lighting the night was useless

romans carried pocket sundials

rural in style and pace, days began at dawn

water evaporated in warm climates and froze (or flowed more slowly) in colder ones

sand could wear the holes until the flow increased

Alfred the great invented the candle clock

the flow of water in or out of a vessel could be rigged to create the first alarm clocks- plato had one that sent balls onto a metal plate that woke up his students at the academy

Water clocks were calibrated using sundials, and so preserved the schizoid division of the hours

Jews and Muslims were required to pray at non-specific times, such as "morning, afternoon" and "evening". Christianity demanded that prayers follow Roman time

seven times (or eight)


 * lauds (just before sunrise)
 * prime (after sunrise)
 * terce (third hour)
 * sext (sixth hour) (siesta)
 * nones (ninth hour) (shifted to midday by 1300 and became noon)
 * compline (after sunset)
 * matins (night)

the word clock comes from the mediaeval latin clocca, meaning bell

bells played a pivotal role in mediaeval europe

sundials had devolved to mere scratches on walls

For night bells, bell righers were instructed with astronomy"On christmas day when you see the twins lyign as it were, over the dormitory, and Orion over the chapel of all saints, prepare to ring the bell." Orleans monestary 11th cent

mediaeval water clocks were far more sophisticated, and seemed to have evolved purely to allow bellringers to sleep

the book of hours, a pamphlet of devotons to the virgin mary, was the bestselling book of the later middle ages

charging interest on a loan is, essentially, buying time

Clocks broke the link between time and the environment, opening the gates to a deeper level of nature

Even before the clock's invention, the hour had already begun to replace the day as the unit of payment in textile manufacture

the first clocks had no faces; only the bells

time can be measured two ways: flow or occilators

verge and foliot escapement

catch release catch release tick tock tick tock

the invention of the mainspring allowed for the miniturisation of clocks and the invention of the watch

Calendar (Duncan)
Besides they did many other things which were opposed to the unity of the church

A holy off. A blind English man was not healed by the Britons, but was by Augustine

Easter, convert the English, baptism

Dionysius Exiguus initially planned to calculate the date of Easter, but in doing so invented the Anno domini calendar

No one knows how Dionysius arrived at his figure for his year one (no zero). (matthew vs Luke in nativity)

Bede, using a sundial in the Scottish borders, was able to show through empirical observation that the March equinox did not always fall on precisely the same hour, and that the year was likely not precisely 365 and a quarter days long

In Europe, the New Year could vary from town to town. People could travel from one county to another and find themselves in the next or previous year

Some used Caesar's date of 1 January; others used Christmas, others easter or the vernal equinox. (as with old German and pre-Julian Roman calendars) Britain and the colonies didn't shift until 1752.

As international trade slowly revived, the necessity for a common calendar became increasingly obvious

Many scholars such as Abelard and Aquanas, looked down on time reckoning as purely mechanical and unworthy of contemplation

The first to agitate for what became the Gregorian calendar were Aloysius Lillius and his brother Antonio, who took up the cause after he died.

Christopher Clavius. Jesuit monk and astronomer. Appointed to the calendar commission in his mid 30s

Supported galileo though an ardent opponent of heliocentrism

John Donne has Satan consider the then-still-alive Clavius as a candidate for Hell for calendar reform.

Pope Gregory was not good at his job. He taxed his peasants steeply to pay for fetes and celebrations, while letting banditry run rampant

He was also, however, a lawyer, which allowed him to cast calendar reform as a legal, rather than a scientific or theological matter

Ignatius of Antioch, a former Syrian patriarch who arrived under much suspicion to seek reconcilliation with the Roman Church. His words needed to be translated from Arabic

One controversy involved the variability in the length of the year, due to the precession of the equinoxes, which was considered controversial at that time

One day every 134 years, or, as Lilius worked out, three days every 402 years.

A mob in franfurt rioted over the theft of 10 days

Catholic Europe eventually adopted the change, some states more grudgingly than others

Protestantism was in no mood to be rational about anything Papal, and rejected the reform as a demonic Papal conspiracy to force Christians to worship on the wrong days.

Neither, for that matter, despite the overtures, was Orthodoxy. Many Orthodox countries would not make the shift until the 20th century

the Orthodox world was fragmented under Muslim rule, and the isolated Orthodox churches were incensed that Gregory had issued the decree before consulting them

Different calendar dates meant that someone travelling from Nuremberg to Regensberg, even if on time, could be considered 10 days late.

The... complex religious and political situation in England was personified by John Dee, who surprisingly pushed Elizabeth to adopt it. But the Archbishop of Canterbury, Grindal, said no.

It would be 170 years before England adopted it, much to the anger of many. Propoenents used the newly invented mass media to push their agenda, essentially invoking FOMO- pointing out that the only Eropean countries not yet adopting were russia and sweden

"Give us back our eleven days!"

rents leases debts

312 Constantine ruled a Rome on the verge of collapse. besieged by Germans to the West and Persians to the East New city Constantinople, more easily governed eastern half- no pagan temples

Constantine shifted the religion of Rome to a Christian base. Likely because the theology of Christianity was an easy fit for the Roman infrastructure. At the time of his ascension in 311, Christians made up about 10 percent of Rome's population

New ideas from the East, including Christianity, Mithraism, and divine monarchy

Auralian instituted a monotheistic sun cult and claimed his right to rule came from the Sun, not the Senate, Diocletian, a man whose persecution of Christians was so intense that his reign formed the basis for their calendar, followed suit

For the first time in centuries, Roman rulers were wearing crowns

The famous story about the seeing the cross of gold in the sky was first told centuries after his death, and Constantine was far too pragmatic a ruler to be given to such zeal. Hell, one of the largest surviving triumphal arches in Rome was erected by Constantine to the old gods.

In 321 As would be expected, Constantine coverted the Roman Empire to the Helleno-Semitic 7-day week. His establishment of Sunday as the Christian holy day, rather than the Jewish Saturday, was officially because Jesus was crucified the day before the Sabbath (the perennially oddly named "good friday") and rose the day after (Easter Sunday) Unofficially it may have been a means to draw in the numerous sun cultists and Mithraists who would otherwise have balked.

Monday (22) moon (23) Saturn (24) Jupiter
 * Tuesday (1) Mars
 * Wednesday
 * Thursday
 * Friday
 * Saturday
 * Sunday

He needed to get Romans celebrating the Resurrection on the same day

Even as Western Rome fell to the Dark Ages, this would remain a line of vigourous inquiry

Three of the 4 gospels agree that Christ was crucified on the SUnday after passover. John suggests an earlier time.

The early christians didn't care about dates- Christ was returning soon anyway. Paul didn't even date his epistles.

the rise of antisemitism led to the choice of the spring equinox to fix the date of easter, rather than the Jewish passover

The problem was that no one had technology advanced enough to precisely determine the spring equinox, often just fixing it as 21 March

St Benedict set his monks to Roman hours (9AM, 12 PM, 3 PM)

Dionysius Exiguous (Little Dennis, Dennis the Humble) a scythian monk, an order in what is now Romania or Bulgaria, likely Encanta.

Little is known about him- he was a member of the Roman Curia, and respected for his translation of Greek Christian texts to Latin.

the timing of Easter had been kept like an alchemical secret by the stargazers of Alexandria, and the Roman church wanted their own table.

525 AD. His method for determining the birth of Christ is unknown. Previously anno diocletiani- era of the martyrs.

Coptic Christians still use the anno diocletiani

The anno domini system spread out of italy, first cassiodorus, then Gaul, then Britain by the time of Bede

Spain didn't adopt it until 1300. BC wasn't used until 1627 By french astronomer Denis Petau

Ar-Rashid sent a water clock to Charlemagne (also an elephant, silk robes, perfumes, ointment)

"A marvellous mechanical contraption, in whch the course fo the twelve hours moved according to a water clock, with as many brazen little balls, which fell down on the hour and through their fall made a cymbal ring underneath. On this clock there we also 12 horsemen, who at the end of each hour stepped out of 12 windoes, closing the prefviously open windows with their movements."

Charlemagne adopted anno domini and was one of the first to simply use the day number instead of the awkward Roman system of kalends ides and nones

Time of nature, authority and custom. Bede

For Bede, god was authority. For Bacon, God was nature.

Christopher Clavius (1593) or GA Magini (1592) decimal point

Merchants, traders, bankers, kings, generals, shipowners

1345 Jean de Meurs, a philosopher at the Uni of Paris, wrote a letter to Pope Clement arguing for a revision of a calendar, but warned that removing days might cause riots, and contract disputes and that Protestants might not agree to follow it. He was right.

1627 years

Aloysius Lilius, born in 1510, a doctor in S. Italy.

Constructed what became the gregorian calendar reform, then died in 1576

His brother Antonio acted as his representative at the council, and the Pope adopted it

Clavius has a lot in common with Giovanni Riccioli; he disbelieved in heliocentrism, supported Galileo with his telescopic observations, and ended up with a crater on the Moon named after him.

Died in 1612, defender of the calendar

Born in 1537 in Bamberg

Professor of Mathematics at the Jesuits' Collegio Romano

Likely acted as a calming influence in the fight between Galileo and the church

In 1611, my favourite poet, John Donne, wrote a scathing anti-Catholic satire in which the founder of the Jesuits, Ignatius Layola, trapped in Hell, trying to dissuade Satan from taking Copernicus, and instead suggests Clavius, who was still alive, as an alternative, for his "great paines which he took in the gregorian calendar, by which both the peace of the church and of civil businesses have been egregiously troubled. Nor hath heaven itself escaped his violence, but have ever since obeyed his appointments, so that st stephen, john the baptist and all the rest which have been commanded to work miracles at certain appoimted do not now attend til the day come, as they are accustomed, but are awakened 10 days sooner, and constrained by him to come down and do that business."

Ugo Buoncompagni: gregory XIII (not the great, of chant fame)

Poe at 70, 30 years

Building Catholic colleges around Europe to stamp out Protestantism

Spread Catholicism to India, the Philippines and China

Established the index of banned books, which would include Copernicus

In 1572, he ordered a te Diem in response to the St Bartholemew's Day Massacre

Nearly bankrupted the vatican treasury with construction and celebrations, but failed to stamp out banditry in the Papal states despite high taxes

Gregory likely saw the calendar reform as a part of the counter reformation, which saw the Church embrace education- the authority granted for the calendar was not the Pope, or God, or science, but the council of Trent.

Since its fall, Rome had been reduced from a million inhabitants to 60 thousand; much of it was reduced back to nature- the Forum was now pasture for cows

Michelangelo had not finished the Basilica

Painting: "the reform of the calendar"

Ignatius of Antioch, a former patriarch who had exiled himself seeking personal reconcilliation with the Roman Church

Many suspected he was a fake until his identity was confirmed

He offered an eastern, Arabic infused take on the calendar reform, signing his name in Arabic and Syriac

How long is a year?

sidereal vs equinoctal

Clavius wanted a sidereal year, which is pretty much fixed

The tropical/equinoctal year varies in length

A mean equinoctal year was chosen, as per Lillius.

the calendar had to be simple to understand and use.

Clavius would defend the choice later

Hipparchus compared the Greek equinoctal year to the Egyptian sidereal year, and found a difference

3 days every 402 years gained

Lilius chose a value for the year based on the Alfonsine Tables: addendum of 5 hrs, 49 minutes, 16 seconds

The reform council chose a more accurate year of 5 hours, 49 minutes and 12 seconds.

Lillius: two choices, drop 10 leap years over the next 40 years, or drop all 10 at once

Lillius easter reform metonic cycle 2500 years 312.7x8 -1 day seven times 300 years apart, add a day 400 years

Hevalius
hevalius was overwhelmed when first observing the Moon terror despair estrangement. No frame of reference

Gentleman of leasure and considerable wealth who had the free time to pursue astronomy

imitated Tycho Brahe

Copernicus had created uncertainty, which led to a hunger for more data

Galileo's discoveries had shaken the Aristotelian worldview

Tycho was an avid astrologer; Hevelius barely mentioned it.

Selenographia places galileo (senses) and Alhazen (reason) on pillars

Mira

Suggested that the darkness that fell on Christ's death was a comet interceding between Earth and the Sun

He followed Tycho in saying that Aristotle's bipartite universe was wrong, but couched the generation and corruption

exhalation of the sun created susnpots exhalation of the palents cerated comets exhalation of the fixed stars created twinkling

teh mechanistic universe of descartes required a shift from a view of god's providence to his majesty

Hevelius was more traditional

15 million degrees
SDO one image of the sun every 12 seconds, 1.5 terabytes a day#

we speak of being in the sun

isaac newton prism teelescope circuklar, light recombined to white by another prism, colors always in the same order

sleepwalkers
all things return to invisible indestructable substance, earth a floating column, sun and moon holes in a great wheel- anaxagoras

anximines stars nailed into a crystal sphere

pythagoras was a religiosu leader who was said to work miracles, coverse with demons, and and descended into hades.

pythagoras discovered that numerical tones were based on exact ratios- the first mathematical system applied to a physical system

he had no coplete proof of the pythgorean theorem

tone, semitone, semitone, minor third, tone, semitone, semitone, minor third

pythagorean scale

Philolaus central fire, a non-sun that the Earth could never see, because the inhabited side was always turned away from it. Another invisible planet, the antichthon, served to protect the antipodes from being scorched by the fire

the sun was merely a window into an outer fire

As Greek seafarers expanded their knowledge, no trace of the central fire or the antichthon was found

Herakliedes was called paradoxolog, [paradox maker, by other greeks and considered a teller of tall tales. He proposed what we now call the tychonic system

plato and aristotle, change was synonymous with degeneration, progress with progress toward disaster. Aristotle believed that science had accomplished all it could in improving the human condition.

"round and spherical, a with its extremities equidistant in all directions from the centre, the figure of all figures most like to itself" Plato

ninth sphere was the sphere of the prime mover

air earth fire water, heat cold dry wet vertival vs horizontal movement

quintessence increases in purity farther from the earth, its proper motion is circular as it is the perfect motion, no beginning and no end

the sun, ruler pricnce and leader of the other stars, sole and ordering principle of the universe sio large tht its light brightens and fills all the orbots of mercury and venus follow him as his compations

The Sun
solar observatories Shinto mateo iwa rocks Atamarasu Stonehenge, Loughcrew Newgrange surya hinduism shamash Virachoca iti Inca Aztecs, tonatiuh Aten, Ra

The Chinese were the first to record eclipses, though they did not initially understand them, believing them to be portents of heaven's displeasure with the emperor

The history of the former han dynasty records an emperess dowager lamenting "this is on my account" upon seeing an eclipse

anaxagoras tried for atheism "Here lies anaxagoras whose picture of the order of the universe came closest to truth"

Thales predicted an eclipse, but he didn't understand it. Anaxagoras theorised that the moon blocked out the Sun and that the moon shone by reflected light from the sun

sun lore
Among the tribes of the pacific northwest Raven finds the sun by accident and places it in the sky for the benefit of man

Among the cherokee, the sun was initially placed to light the dark, but was too close to the Earth, and was shifted until seven handbredths above the world, where it was just right

In several native american myths, the moon predates the Sun, which is its replacement as a lamp for humanity

Mewan: marriage by capture, sun woman is bound and placed in the sky to dispell the darkness

Several Native American tribes feature a tribal council called to deal with the lack of light, and the decision to create a sun

carried on shoulders four tries to prevent burning up the world

In the ute myth, the Sun approached Hare, burning him. Swearing vengeance, Hare chases the Sun to th ends of the Earth, when, upon seeing the sun emerge from its cave, he shoots it in the face, and it explodes. The fragmetns set the world, and Hare, on fire, before his remaining head lets loose tears that extinguish it

Shinto |Amatarasu giver of ligth daugher of the creators, ruler over the plain of high heaven

the ingigenous people of the bering strait the raven brothers quarrelled over mankind's right to the sun.

Bushmen of south africa (armpit, cuncil, children, thrown into the sky)

NORSE MUIDILFORI CHILDren gods anry throw them in the sky sol mani drive chariot

surya ban chandra ban ##inca children of the sun

mithras azon nakkis lord sun

golden hair, merciless spears, robes of light

soem have speculated that the hare's importance at easter may have been dye ti its fleet footed nature

INdo european solar chariot vedic

india cow sun rays milk greek odysseus eats the cows of helios

Finland twilight sun custodians and dawn are lovers who meet just breifly at the height of summer, and kiss for a moment at midnight

condemned for atheism in absentia

believed that the sun was a giant rock heated by a rapid spin and that falling meteorites were bits of it that had flowen off

Haloes are residual from greco roman depictions of sun gods like apollo  Halo comes from halos, greek for the sun disc

PLC
1395: Grand duke of Lithuania, Jagiello, married polish queen jadwiga of anjou

committed to baptism in the catholic faith

Official documents were in Ruthenian, the ancestor of Belorussian and Ukrainian

In theory, it was a union of equals, in practice polish culture dominated

Polish civilization overtook the aristocracy, while the peasaants spoke Ruthenian or Lithuanian

In 1596 teh Ruthenian orthodox church broke with with the Patriarchy and submitted to the Pope

teh PLC in its declining years established the second constitution in the world, after the American constitution

Sobel
His uncle became Bishop of Warmia

We don't know when his mother died, so he might have been orphaned.

Fraueberg (our lady)

Notes while secretary include accounts of a lunar eclipse and a great conjunction.

Padua (Galileo)

copernicus
DDi revolutionaribus ahd only 2 editions, 1543 and 1566, and was not translated into english until 1952

Born in 1473 in the town of torun (then called Thorn) on the vistula river in the Kingdom of Poland

Named for his father Niklas Koppernigk, a wealthy merchant dealing in copper, whose family had come from German speaking Prussia but settled initially in the Polish-German town of Kopernik (Copper? Or dill?)

Upon his father's death, (age 10) we was taken in by his uncle, who decided he should become a canon at Frauenberg, as he was

Krakow was one of the great European universities of Copernicus's time Jagleollonian, easternmost, with his brother andreas

left without taking a deree

matthew of Meochow, teacher of copernicus, would later come across his heliocentric theory, without knowing it was by him

copernicus read al tusi

employed Tycho's alphonsine tables

Copernicus was at college in 1493 when Columbus returned from his first voyage

elected to a cononry in 1497, but deferred to study law at the university of Bologna for seven years

Despite claims by later writers, including Galileo, Copernicus never took higher orders, and so was not a preist.

Although officially a student of law, Copernicus followed up n the astronomy learned at Krakow, and aided Bologna's astronomy professor in his observations.

served as secretary of state and physicisn to his uncle. Also attended Prussian diets

His patients includied the grand master of the teutonic knights and the king of poland, as well as his fellow clerics

claimed coudl cure grey hair, gout, poor vision, insomnia, colic, plague, poor digetion intellectual weakness, poor nerves

built an observatory at his own expernse, that included an armillary sphere aka that thing in game of thrones

commentariolos For these were not adequate unless certain equants were also conceived; it then appeared that a planet moved at a uniform velocity neither upon its deerent nor upon the centre of its epicycle. Hence a a system of this sort seemed neither sufficiently absolute nor suficiently pleasing to the mind

a more reasonable arrangement of circles.. as the rule of absolute motion requires

orbit negligible compared to orbit of the fixt stars. Sand Recokoner? Aristarchus's heliocnetric theory mentioened, not mentioned by copernicus despite mentioning him four times

In december 1520, Copernicus was left alone to defend the castel of Allenstein from the Teutonic Knights

Copernicus was the fisrt to state Gresham's law

A detailed threatise on the means to keep the price of a loaf of bread at one penny "A Just price"

After deducting costs for sifting, wages, transportation and ingredients, he concludes that at times of dearth, a penny loaf should weigh a third of a pound, while in times of plenty, it should weight a half pound.

Ferber complained that none of the canons had ever taken higher orders (vow of celeby only) threat of Protestantism

anna schilling- came together after she and c became gaurdians to orphaned children

Protestants were banend from warmia rheticus

He said he dumped her, but moved her to another house

May 1539 Georg Joachiom von Lauchen, aka Rheticus, 25, professor of mathematics at (protestant) University of Wittenberg.

At 14 his father was beheaded for sorcery

Tiedmann Giese was Copernicus closest friend. Bishop of Kulm had been a canon with Copernicus for 30 years

Bishop Dantiscus wrote to Gise to get c to break up with anna

The first account had a second edition in 1541

precession explained better by c? Rheticus

rheticus argued that Averroes said that Ptolemy merely saved appearances, that epicycles coulod not exist in nature

C accounted for the year, the day and ptrecession by three motions of the earth

five additional motions, uincluding variation of the tropical year, variatiion of precession that the ancients supposedly saw

pt did not preserve circular motion and required a variation in the parallax and apparent diameter of the moon

Westman
astronomers cannot agree as to the order of the planets so astrology cannot make certain predictions Pico

Picos attack on astrology published by same publisher who published novara prognostications (job requirement)

"Astrology" appears only once in Copernicus's writings

Rheticus sold copernicausm on how it could impact astrology, and even made astrological predictions based on a (wrong) formula found in de revolutionabus

Modern writers on the history of science contend that Copernicus, despite having a medical degree, was exceptional in not casting horoscopes.

A book signed by novarra included 13 texts on astrological theory

Copernicus must havve read Pico, since that is the only source he could have taken Avaroes

rheticus mentions how copernicus renders picos objections irrellevant in his intro to brief account

was de revolutionabus a response to Pico's complaint?

Froma geocentruic perspective, both mercury and venus appear to circle the sun in one year

Singham
Teh position of the sun became a privieged place after heliocentrism was accepted, and this idea was applied retroactively to the pre-copernicans

Prtestantism has always been flexibel, and so abandone its opposition to heliocentrism quickly. the catholics took until 1822 1835 (nabbed bvooks) galielo edict lifed 1992

Sleepwalkers
copernicus held his book as he lay dying his mind wandering

favoured by a serene sky for the nile does not exude such vapours as the vistula

c was not a good astronomer. He made barely 70 observations, and the longitude of his base star, Spica, was off by more than the width of the moon.

He relied on the observations of Ptolemy and other ancients.

He drew on his canonical prebend, but did not attend Frauenberg for 15 years, instead focusing on his dgree. It was a cushy job

A graduate at Padua or Balogna was expected to throw a massive party for all his friends; at Fararra c could escape that

the publiocation of de rev produced hardly a ripple

His name was kept alive by his astronomical tables

melancthon proved the earth was at rest but did nto withdraw his patronage from rheticus

lunar eclipses can't happen; changes in the length of the day and season would ensue

earth woudl fly to pieces

John Donne Ignatius his conclave

osiander anonymous ad lectorum

40 epicycles vs 48 (ptolemy vs copernicus)

not placed on the list of prohibited books until 1616

Copernicuss lack of an equant made it easy to use

an attempt to go back to the beauty pre ptolemy

format parallels ptolemy's almagest

Emmanuel Kant coined the term, "copernican revolution in philosophy

Knight
Teutonic knights controlled the area of Warmia with the bishops effectively ruling as indepenmdent princes

subduing the pegan Prusi or Prussians. By 1283 the Prussians were subdued

In 1466 Warmia became part of Poland

Lucas had to walk a fne line between the king who consecrated him and the knights who could kill him

Contemporary accounts placed Krakov in Germany

A canon was essentially a Bishop's secreatary, who helped administer the diocese.

Bologna was jeavo;y noased om favpir pf stidemts. who were older, often already employed and able to claim benefit of clergy. Thus Bologna was in modern parlance, a party school

Despite being privileged, and belnging to the most privileged "nation" the Germans, Copernicus was one of the more assiuous students

Novara was an outspoken critic of Ptolemy, noting that his observations disagreed with Ptolemaic theory

In 1512, when copernicus was 40, Lucas died, copermicus his physicisan was unable to tend him

He then moved to his canon position on Frauenberg, though, despite man chances to move to more comfortable quarters, he stayed in his tower, which could act as an observatory

The war was less a war than a peasant slaughtering competition

Copernnicus and Snellenberg, both at Allenstein, were the only canons who didn#'t flee. They and the servants launched a defence of Aleenstein from teh tutonic knights

Copernicus and Giese conduicted their administration of the raviged lands, including a thorough doumentation of the knights crimes againt the peasatry and townsfolk

Canon Giese future Bishop of Kyulm and Varmia

Then current Bishop of Varmia, Ferber, was viciously anti protestant and gout ridden

Giese published a book hoping to reconcile the two groups

"Oh if the lutehrans were filled with |Christian spirit towards the Romans, and the Romans filled with Christian spirit towards the Lutberans, the tragedy would not have taken place in our churches"

Thanks to a skills as a physicisan and his knoweledge of economy, Copernicus was too useful to exile

"What I know, the public does not approve, and what it approves I know to be error"

1Ferber's succesor, Johann dantiscus, was even harsher, but netiehr foudn fault with copernicus's work

Astoundingly, Copernucs would strike up a friendship wth the Grand Master, after he had been made duke of his own fiefdom.

By all accounts, Copernics took an immediate liking to Rheticus

In 1542, stifled by opposition to Copernicus#'s work, Rhetuius took a job at Leipzig, a hundred miles away from Neuremberg. He naded the job of publishing c to a Lutheran Clergiman named andreas Osiander

opernicus had saught osianders advice about how his ideas would eb received. He repolied that astronomical ideas should nopt be taken literally

epicycle or eccentric

Osiander swapped out copernicuss preface with his own

Paul III was already dead

A work written by a catholic caonon published by a potestant preacher and dedicated to a pope.

Teh book was not a financial success and 26 years passed before it was reprinted

As he approached death. Copernicus became incerasingly lonely. His toleratn views towards protestants eerre at odds with dantiscus who banished his friends and even hs housekeeper

Copernicus was not a skilled astronomical observer and most of his star postions were taken from the almagest

singham
"the excrementary and filthy parts of the lower world ... the worst and deast part of the universe in the lowest part of the house, most removed from the heavenly arch"

Aristotle did not allow fire below the earth, so Dante's hell is made of ice

Aristotle earth was not the centre, it was at the center

Copernicus's model was neither more accurate nor kless complicated

circular motion could be explained as an initial condition

Without graivty there was no way to explain a specific elliptical orbit

In aristotle, there was only one down

Apollonius of Perga is credited with conceeiving the epicycle

earth more important in an earth centric universe (our universe sitll earth centric?)

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Emmanuel Kant coined the term, "copernican revolution in philosophy

Aristotle- only unnatrual motion needs to be explained.

In the perishable world, things move in straight lines al things strive for their proper place

In the heavens, natural motioon was perfect circular

everythign above the earth was aethir

Thomas Aquinas unified Christianity with Aristotleanism

Ficino de sole et lumine

teh equant abandins uniform circular motion

departure from pure aristotelianism

He quotes past masters liberally

Rublack
1620: Trial begins (Kepler left for one year to visit his mother, chained to a stone floor, guards thogut she was a witch)

Kepler played his mother's defense

Spanish inquisition carried out 300 000 trials, and executed 14 thousand.

Kepler used herbal medicine but not for profit

despite Kepler's claims, she was not ever cited for being quarrelsome

Harmony of the world: kepler different from mother similar physique and similar sun sign (no education, female nature, restless temperment, disturbs the whole of her town and is the author of her own misfortune- 1619)

He did most to defend her, became closer to her during the trial

7th august 1620: imprisoned in chains.

Witnesses were too young, a bad reputation needed to be established

Kepler listed the various illnesses, aches, pain and animal deaths and noted that this was par for the course for a post-mediaeval farming community

Witchcraft effects should have no natural origin, or be curable by natural means

year of imprisonment died within six months

Kepler composed a legal document in his mother's defence, rhetoric and argument were in Kepler's blood

Between 1500 and 1700, between 30,000 and 40,000 men (25 percent) and women were tried and burned, (50 percent conviction rate) about half of them in the Holy Roman Empire.

1n 1614 the duke's widow died and in 1615, a harsh winter led to a famine

Climate changes, increase in population led to starvation and unemployment

she was in danger of being burned alive

this inspired the local governor to take the law into his own hands, and witch persecutions soared. Seven women were executed between 1615 and 1616; more than the combined total of such executions in the entire history of the district.

Ursula Reinbold, glaziers wife, claimed that Frau had bewitched her and made her lame

1616: Katharina made her way to Linz to stay with Johannes

"general rarbble, scum of the people" demanded 1000 guilden

1617: Katarina returned

Lukas Einhorn executed 7 women between 1615 and 1616 (independent)

the family accused Ursula of defamation to stop the news from spreading

How could she help ursula if she had done nothing wrong (brother threatened her with a sword)

Margarete asked for her brother Johannes help (October 1615) not received til December and responded in January

Tried to bribe Einhorn with a silver cup (bribery was common, einhorn was not)

relative wealth

Kepler's old friend, now schoolmaster, claimed she had poisoned him with wine.

She was 73. The ducal governor sent his men to take her.

She hid naked in a chest, but was found anyway

Accusations began to spread, particularly a young girl who claimed she had been hurt when Kepler touched her arm His renaissance was a time of change, of huge advances in engineering, navigation, and political science, so that "every year, the number of writigns published in every fiedl es equal to that published in the last thousand years." (de stella nova)

Her son Heinrich, who had arrived home after 25 years as a guard in Prague, impoverished and ill, was the first to call Frau Kepler a witch

Katharina's defence was typical of those strong enough to resist; she denied her guilt, fell to her knees, recited the lords prayer and argued that only god could be her judge

Kepler had circulated the Dream among friends, including one who had taken it to Tubingen. He specuated, horrified, that it may have played a role in her mother's trial

August 1615: Ursula Reinbold, glazier's wife, who told the governor that Frau Kepler had cursed her with lameness

1621: Tubingen professors conclude, after Kepler's defense, that the evidence and her age did not justify torture. Instead she was to be merely shown the instruments by the executioner, in the hopes of scaring the truth out of her.

solid line of argument, point by point refutations

Copernicus's interest in calendar reform ahd led to dissatisfaction with ptolemaic data

"copernicus was content to interpret ptolemy rather than nature (Kepler)

some have raised questions as to the Luther quote's authenticity, as it doesn't appeear in an earlier edition of the work Coprtnicus wanted to save Aristotle (natural movement, uniform circular motion) not overturn him. Ptolemy wasn't conservative enough