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= Uncertainty reduction theory =

Information seeking
Knobloch and Solomon (2002) move beyond Berger and Calabrese's original application of the theory to initial relationships and suggest that some of the central assumptions of the theory need to be reformulated to fit the specific challenges faced by those in intimate relationships. While casual acquaintances interacting initially benefit from being able to predict the other's feelings and behavior patterns, Knobloch (2013) suggests that people in close relationships strengthen their relationships by analyzing their understanding of their own and their partner's participation in the relationship and by working as a couple to manage uncertainty in the relationship as a whole. They identified three main types of uncertainty in close relationships: self uncertainty, partner uncertainty, and relationship uncertainty. People in close relationships communicated doubt about their own involvement in the relationship, as well as their partner's. Individuals also experienced feelings of uncertainty about the concept of relationships in general. It is the process of learning to work together to manage the uncertainty that builds closeness between partners and builds a sense of mutual accomplishment.

In addition, being in a close relationship affects the way people choose to seek and disclose information. The more intimate the relationship, the more willing partners are to use direct strategies of interrogation even in the midst of relational uncertainty. Several factors influence the level of disclosure in close relationships.The level of intimacy shared by a couple influences the willingness of partners to engage in direct information seeking strategies. The greater the intimacy, the greater the likelihood the couple will seek information directly. Power balance is another consideration. If one partner is perceived as having more power in the relationship, the less likely the other will be to seek information directly. Power imbalance impedes the willingness of the weaker partner to communicate freely. For example, a partner who experiences a high level of relational uncertainty because his/her partner is the sole income-earner in the relationship will be much less likely to express displeasure over the undesirable behavior of the more powerful partner. Conversely, the more powerful partner will be likelier to engage in direct strategies because he/she has less to fear from disclosure.

Long distance (LDRs) and geographically close relationships (GCRs)
Dainton and Aylor (2001) agreed that Uncertainty Reduction Theory is not only applicable to the initial development of relationships but also is useful in understanding relationships already established. Relational uncertainty can cause instability in already established relationships, and management of this uncertainty is an ongoing process. One of the ways uncertainty manifests itself in established relationships is through feelings of trust, lack of trust, and jealousy. When uncertainty exists, trust decreases, and feelings of jealousy tend to increase. Couples who maintain long distance relations are more likely to suffer uncertainty than those who are in GCRs. However, there are strategies that can reduce uncertainty in LDRs and GCRs alike. Communicating assurances to one's partner increases relational certainty. For example, saying "I love you" or verbally expressing desire to have a future together can reduce uncertainty. In addition, simply deciding to trust one's partner is a powerful strategy and is particularly applicable in established relationships. In LDRs, it seems initial research suggests that frequent face-to-face contact between partners may be a powerful way to build relational certainty and bring the uncertainty those couples experience more in line with that felt by GCRs.

Mobile phone use
Use of mobile phones for voice calls rather than only using phones for text based communication offers some benefits similar to face-to-face interaction. Jin and Peña (2010) found that couples in a romantic relationship who communicated via mobile phones had much higher reduction of relational uncertainty when they regularly used voice calls. Text messaging did not receive the same benefit, suggesting that utilizing actual voice calling increases the feeling of connection between couples.

Gender Roles
Men and women use uncertainty reduction strategies in different ways. In a study performed by Sanders, Wiseman & Matz (1990), both men and women valued others' self-disclosure as a way to reduce relational uncertainty, but women depended more heavily on this strategy than men did. Men felt less uncertainty after they themselves self-disclosed even though women tended to use this strategy more. Women also relied on interrogation/questioning strategies to reduce uncertainty, while men did not. The researchers suggested this could be because men do not typically use questioning as often and may not be as effective at using the strategy. Gender also influences what individuals choose to disclose.

Employees and Employers (This will be added under the already existing job hiring section of original article.)
Organizations are now applying Uncertainty Reduction Theory to the recruitment process in order to remain competitive in acquiring the most qualified employees. In the initial meeting between job seekers and perspective employers, well-qualified job seekers look for signals that might indicate what a future with that organization would be like and the sort of relationships they are likely to have with other individuals within the organization. Walker et al. (2013) found that positive interactions with potential employers as well as fair treatment in the initial meeting after applying for the job increased positive relational certainty in job seekers.

Petelle and Others studied the use of passive, active, and interactive uncertainty reduction strategies used by new employees to gain information about their supervisors. The study showed that new employees were able to gain more information by using interactive strategies than employees were able to gain by using passive or active strategies, and, overall, employees favored using interactive strategies, perceiving them to be the most beneficial in increasing employee satisfaction with their relationships with supervisors. Those using active strategies tended to distrust information gained from coworkers about supervisors, fearing the information might not be accurate because it was secondhand.

Online Education
Online courses can be expected to foster r communication uncertainty because of the nature of Computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL). Students come from a variety of backgrounds and have different communication styles. In addition, because there is typically an unspecified amount of time between online postings and discussion replies, feelings of uncertainty can be multiplied. An example of this might be an online asynchronous discussion where a student posts to a discussion board but receives no replies. The student could wonder if the content of his/her post was either unclear and confusing or not engaging enough to elicit a response.

Many students who take online classes may feel alienated or isolated, leading to feelings of uncertainty. Wei, Chen & Kinshuk (2012) argued that utilizing strategies and tools that promote social presence during CMC can mitigate or even eliminate these feelings. Discussion boards where class participants have regular access to one another is one way to develop a social presence. Learners benefit from giving and receiving feedback. A user-friendly interface and access to multiple media tools aid learners in decoding social cues necessary to reduce uncertainty. Allmendinger found that using avatars, whether they were photographs or computer generated, promoted more positive interactions in virtual learning environments. One strategy for building relationships and reducing uncertainty between online classmates is keeping class sizes small. Akcaoglu and Lee (2016) found that smaller groups of online learners fostered feelings of connection with classmates. In addition, trust building is key for reducing anxiety and uncertainty in these relationships.

Speed dating (under Contemporary use)
According to Deyo, Walt, and Davis (2011), the typical speed dating experience follows the three stage pattern proposed by Berger and Calabrese (entry, personal, and exit) even though the time spent with each partner is minimal. Uncertainty reduction is achieved in a fairly short amount of time, and participants are able to ascertain whether those they meet are compatible with themselves. The participants begin the encounter already knowing some entry level information about whom they will meet. For instance, they know they will meet with people of a particular age and gender who are able to afford the entrance fee required to participate. Once the "date" begins, the participants question one another and begin to share more personal information. The exit stage occurs when participants are ready to switch partners, and they check a box on their questionnaires to indicate whether or not they wish to seek out further contact after that night.

Social media
Fox and Anderegg (2014) found that individuals used all three categories of uncertainty reduction strategies (passive, active, and interactive) when interacting of Facebook. They found that as relationships progressed, the strategies used by partners changed as well. Particular uses of strategies were seen as normative behavior depending on the level/stage of the relationship. For example, passive behaviors such as scrolling through another's posts, photos, etc. were typically present in the initial stages before couples were actually dating. Active strategies that involve behaviors such as sending friend requests to the other's friends, and especially their family, seemed to be appropriate once partners were dating exclusively. Friending a partner's parents, for instance, could be seen as akin to being introduced to your partner's parents, something that is typically not common in casual relationships. Interactive strategies such as posting to another's timeline or chatting were seen as most appropriate for those who were exclusively dating, but were less common in those seeking romantic relationships who had not yet had face-to-face contact. In addition, gender played a role in the types of strategies used initially: females were more likely to use passive strategies while males were less likely to use interactive ones.