User:Shannon7mcnamara/sandbox

Hi, my name is Shannon McNamara. I'm a sophomore at Rice University. I'm creating this wikiuser for my Poverty, Justice, and Human Capabilities class.

Background
Female genital mutilation is practiced, in however small or large of a sense, in almost all African countries. However, female genital mutilation is also prevalent in parts of Asia, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Persian Gulf, Pakistan, Russia, South America (Peru, Brazil, and Eastern Mexico), and Australia (from Urabunna in the South to the Eastern Shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria). The World Health Organization estimates that 80 million girls and women are circumcised, due to female genital mutilation, in more than 30 countries of Africa, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia. The practice of female genital mutilation includes various socioeconomic, ethnic, and cultural groups, including, but not limited to, Christians, Muslims, and followers of indigenous African religions.

FGM in the United States
Female genital mutilation is illegal in the United States, due to a U.S. federal law that was enacted on September 30, 1996. The law prohibits female genital mutilation of minors. The criminalized subsection of the law came into effect 180 days after the law was enacted (March 30, 1997). A variety of different state laws also prohibit FGM. Many US citizens believe that prohibiting female genital mutilation is culturally imperialistic, while still some others believe that when a circumcised women seeks American health care, she has chosen to receive American medical care.

Congresswoman Patricia Schroeder introduced bill HR 3247 on October 7, 1993, which prohibits the genital mutilation of girls within the United States. The bill provides education to immigrant communities about the health risks and the legal liabilities of the practice. As of today, this bill has not yet been passed. The Women’s Health Equity Act (HR 3075, sections 261 through 263) proposes criminal penalties for all medically unnecessary female genital mutilations, and for the Secretary of the US Department of Health and Human Services to undertake educational and outreach activities. Some patients argue that if it becomes illegal for health professionals to perform this procedure, they will instead turn to unskilled workers who will perform the procedure under unsterile conditions. There are surgeons in the United States today who still perform FGM, even despite the current legislation that prohibits it. Elizabeth Heger Boyle, however, believes, "The issue of female genital cutting has no direct relevance to the vast majority of Americans," and that "the federal ban on the practice generated very little controversy."

Female genital mutilation is occurring illegally in the United States today, and health care workers in the US are seeing an increasing number of immigrants, especially, who have previously had FGM performed. FGM is especially noticed in the United States in populations of Somali refugees. Somali refugees in the United States have offered to pay US doctors has much as $3,000 to perform FGM on their daughters, while others rely on Somali midwives. In 1986, the district attorney in Atlanta, Georgia, charged an African-born nurse with child abuse because she performed a botched clitoridectomy on her three-year old niece. In a Seattle health clinic for Somali refugees, doctors have also reported many cases of patients who have been mutilated or infibulated by this practice. Cases have been reported where circumcisers are brought to the United States to perform FGM - usually on more than one girl.

In the USA, the Board of Immigration Appeals Court ruled on a plea placed by 19 year old Fauziya Kasinga - a member of the Tahamba-Kunsunta tribe, from the West African nation of Togo. Kasinga requested asylum in the US in order to escape forced FGM that would have been requested as part of a marriage ritual if she were to be returned to her country. Through an 11-1 vote, the US Board of Immigration Appeals declared the practice constitutes “persecution” under the Federal Immigration Law, and ordered the INS grant asylum to Kasgina.

FGM in Asia
FGM has never become a large issue in Malaysia, despite the fact that some believe that female genital mutilation is performed among Malaysian Muslims. In Malaysia, which is a multi-racial country, only the Malays (who are all Muslims by Constitutional definition) are known to practice both male and female circumcision. The Malays comprise over 60% of Malaysian society. Several recent publications by Nahid Toubia, which review existing data on FGM, indicate that "although female genital practices are said to be carried out among some Muslims in Malaysia, it is not clear whether these are ‘non-cutting’ rituals, similar to those found in Indonesia, or a form of clitoridectomy." .

FGM in Europe
The practice of FGM is outlawed in Europe only in the United Kingdom, Sweden, and Belgium - no law forbids it in most other countries. Occurrences of FGM do still happen in these three countries, however. In 1993 in the United Kingdom, a male general medical practitioner performed FGM, despite knowing that it was illegal, and was struck off the register by the General Medical Council.

Even though FGM is illegal in Britain, it is practiced secretly, and sometimes children are sent abroad in order to have the operation. During the past three or four decades, different ethnic groups who practice FGM have immigrated to Britain, mainly as refugees. The main refugee groups are from Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Yemen. It has been estimated that in the refugee's own countries over 80% of women have had this operation. There is also evidence that the operation is being performed illegally in Britain by either medically qualified or unqualified practitioners, and that children in Britain are being sent abroad for a “holiday” to have this performed. In Britain the procedure is usually performed on children between the ages of 7 and 9. The Prohibition of Female Circumcision Act of 1985 outlawed the practice of FGM to happen in the United Kingdom. Under this act it is an offense to “excise, infibulate, or otherwise mutilate the whole or any part of the labia majora or labia minora or clitoris of another person,” or, “to aid, abet, or procure the performance of another person of any of these acts on that person’s own body.”. If a person is found guilty of this, offense they are liable to a fine or to imprisonment for up to five years, or to both, if they are convicted on indictment before a judge and jury in a crown court. In Britain there have been no prosecutions under this act, but the case is difference for France, where convictions have been obtained.

In France, the practice of FGM falls under Article 312 of the Penal Code: “grievous bodily harm to a minor under 15”; but it was not until a French woman mutilated her daughter’s sexual organs in a fit of dementia and was sentenced, that the female genital mutilation of African girls as well was accepted as a grievous bodily harm by the judicial system. Sentences for FGM can range from three months upwards in prison with fines.

Today in France, ministries and public institutions feel directly involved in the issue of FGM. Prevention kits (in the form of posters and leaflets) have recently been published and distributed across Paris by the prefecture of the Ile de France, as a result of the work of several different associations. While this material is currently used only in the Paris area, this material will soon be available all over France. Currently an estimated 100,000 immigrants live in the Paris region. If only half of these women who currently live in PAris are excised, then it can be said that 20,000 women and 12,500 girls living in France have either suffered from female genital mutilation, or will do so. Of these women who have suffered from FGM, 90% live in the Ile de France region. However, most of these women are from Mali, and a few are from Senegal.

In Spain, the first cases of FGM were detected and reported by healthcare professionals in 1993. Since that time, new mutilations have not been reported in Spain, although it is known that some families take advantage of vacation trips to their countries of origin to carry out this practice, much like the "holidays" that occur in Britain. Results from the national census say that from countries in which these practices are carried out, residing in Spain in 2005, it is estimated that about 9,545 women in Spain have undergone some type of FGM and approximately 3,824 girls are at an age of risk of having this performed within the next few years.

In Belgium, there are 22,840 women and girls who are from a country that practices FGM. 6,260 of these women and girls have “most probably already undergone a FGM” and 1,190 are “at risk”. Girls who are born in Belgium are at risk of being mutilated either in Europe or upon their return to the country of origin during holidays, similar to other countries in Europe. The Belgian Minister of Health created a quantitative study in order to better define the magnitude of FGM in the country and also to obtain more reliable estimates on the number of women with FGM living in Belgium, and that of girls who might undergo this process.

The first study was conducted in 2003, and this showed that 2,211 women living in Belgium had already undergone FGM in their country of origin, while 534 girls had the probability of being exposed to the process. The second study looked into the countries of origin of the women who had already experienced FGM. In Belgium, about 80% of the women concerned are from ten African countries, which consist of: Guinea, Somalia, Egypt, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Cote d’Ivoire, Sierra Leone, Senegal, Burkina Faso, and Mali.

FGM in the Middle East
Some Middle Eastern countries such as Egypt, Oman, Yemen, and the United Arab Emirate practice FGM, whereas other countries such as Libya, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Iran, and Iraq do not.

The practice of female genital mutilation in Egypt dates back to the time of the pharaohs. The prevalence of FGM in Egypt has been estimated at rates of 61% in Lower Egypt and 97% in Upper Egypt. In Egypt, a small-scale campaign against FGM has been underway since the 1950s, most notably headed by the Cairo Family Planning Association. Furthermore, "the Egyptian Organization for Human Rights has launched the first legal suit ever filed against the grand sheik of Al-Azhar University for issuing a “fatwa” declaring FGM an Islamic duty. The suit (which also implicated the President and Minister of Health for condoning the practice) asks for 500,000 Egyptian pounds in damages to be used to finance a non-governmental campaign against FGM". In 2007, after an adolescent girl died from hemorrhage after undergoing FGM in Upper Egypt, the Egyptian parliament criminalized the entire practice. Currently, any person performing FGM in Egypt is liable to both arrest and punishment.

Although FGM is criminalized in Egypt, is still practiced covertly, as is the case with most countries. "The true reasons for having FGM performed on girls are uncertain, but those often put forward are respecting tradition, following a religious precept, and the necessity of ensuring female chastity". The Egyptian government has used tools such as the mass media and organized group discussions to educate the population about this practice. Although reports do seem to indicate a decreasing popularity of FGM in Upper Egypt, the data about the extent of the practice is sparse, and has also been conflicted, especially since FGM was criminalized.

In Egypt and Sudan, FGM is usually carried out before puberty, however in Yemen, it is frequently performed on infants.

FGM in Australia
An estimated 120,000 women who are living in Australia came from countries where some type of female circumcision is commonly traditional. Despite efforts by many of these countries to eliminate this traditions, (the efforts are showing some small success) the continuing migration to Australia of girls and women who have undergone FGM means that these numbers will remain substantial for some time.

In 1994 the Family Law Council in Australia prepared a report for the Attorney-General that recommended a two-part strategy of education and legislation that would prevent the practice of FGM within Australia. Most states and territories in Australia now have legislation that specifically bans FGM, and there has been both commonwealth and state/territory educational initiatives that involve the potentially affected FGM communities and health professionals. However, not all health professionals in Australia currently have the training necessary to identify and respond to both the health, and psychological needs of those women and girls who have undergone FGM in countries outside Australia. Further problems exist. "Women [in Australia] with FGM have complained that media programmes have led to their being stigmatized and portrayed as victimes, and their privacy disregarded."