User:Shannonf94/sandbox

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Extended female sexuality

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The Male-Assistance Hypothesis
The male assistance hypothesis argues that females mate outside of the most fertile part of their ovulatory cycle in order to obtain resources from males (Thornhill). The model makes two main predictions. Firstly, the model assumes that in species which demonstrate extended female sexuality, the males should provide resources to females (Thornhill). This hypothesis was supported by Stacey’s (1982) review who found that in species (of birds and mammals) where males provide assistance to females, in terms of resources, the females show heightened levels of promiscuity, outside of the fertile phase of their ovulatory cycle.

Second, the males that females opt to mate with should differ across a number of variables, depending upon whether the woman is fertile or non-fertile (Thornhill). This ties in with the concept of parental investment which postulates that women should mate with men who provide resources outside of their fertile period, to engage in a long-term relationship with the male, and secure resources for her, and her offspring. Whilst in her fertile stage of her ovulatory period, however, the woman should mate with attractive males to ensure that she passes ‘good genes’ onto her offspring (Flanagan and Cardwell). Support for this second hypothesis comes from a literature review by Gangestad and Thornhill (2008). They found that oestrus human females look to mate with males with the best ‘genetic material’.

Shannonf94 (talk) 11:16, 19 February 2016 (UTC)

Hrdy’s Hypothesis
According to Hrdy’s (1981) hypothesis, female extended sexuality is an adaptive process with an aim of creating paternity-confusion in their male counterparts. Paternity confusion refers to the male being unsure of whether offspring are genetically his own. If the female mates with different males (at all points of her ovarian cycle) whilst concealing fertility, then the males will inevitably have paternity confusion.

Paternity confusion is proposed to be an adaptive function to stop infanticide. Infanticide refers to the phenomenon of adults in a species (either males or females) killing offspring that are not genetically their own. Thus, if the female can successfully create paternity confusion then the males will be less likely to kill her offspring as they run the risk of killing their genetic offspring if they are uncertain of whether they fathered them. Additionally, the males, in turn, are likely to protect the offspring from infanticide committed by other adults within the species. Once again, this is because they are uncertain about paternity and aim to protect infants they are genetically their own.

Evidence for this hypothesis comes from Townsend, Deschner and Zuberbuhler (2008). The authors analysed the behaviour of chimpanzees, with particular reference to copulation calling. Copulation calling is a type of vocalisation used to attract mates. The calls are vocalised either before, during, or, after sexual intercourse. Copulation calling, in line with Hrdy’s hypothesis, may then be one way to ensure that the female can mate with as many different males as possible, causing paternity confusion. Indeed, the authors found that the probability of copulatory calling in female chimpanzees was not modulated by the ovarian phase of the female caller; thereby aiding paternity confusion. This paternity confusion ultimately ensures that the woman has access to the resources, and protection, of a number of different males, at her, and, her offspring’s, disposal.

Indeed, research is fairly consistent in the finding that species with concealed oestrus, mate at all stages of their ovarian cycle. Furtbauer, Heistermann, Schulke and Ostner (2011) investigated mating activity in assamese macaques (Macaca assamensis). They analysed the levels of progestorone in the monkeys, in order to establish the ovarian stage of the female, as progestorone peaks following the fertile window. They found that whilst females lacked sexual swellings, and copulation calls; the females were sexually receptive during the entire mating season.

Hrdy’s hypothesis has been criticised on the basis that some female primates show both extended sexuality and sexual swellings (Dixon, 1998 in Thornhill, 2008 ). In terms of Hrdy’s hypothesis these two concepts are incompatible. Sexual swellings appear only during the most fertile phase of the female’s ovulatory cycle, with the purpose of advertising fertility. In sharp contrast, according to Hrdy, extended sexuality is adapted to conceal fertility and ensure mating across all stages of the ovulatory cycle.

Additional criticism of Hrdy’s hypothesis emerges from the fact that there is evidence which suggests that male primates can discriminate between their own offspring, and the offspring of others (Buchan, Alberts, Silk, & Altmann, 2003). The authors analysed the DNA of 75 juvenile baboons, to conclude who fathered the baboons. They found that males selectively cared for their own offspring, particularly when their offspring became involved in aggressive confrontations which posed the possibility of injuries or a threat to their social standing. Evidently, if males can discriminate between their own offspring and the offspring of others, then there is no purpose in the female attempting to create paternity confusion during the pregnancy stage. This would be counterintuitive as once the offspring is born, the males will know whether the offspring is, or is not their own. Future research will need to be conducted in this vein, to investigate whether males in other species show the ability to discriminate between their own offspring, and the offspring of others before coming to any decisive conclusions.

Nevertheless, as there is criticism aimed at Hrdy’s hypothesis, researchers have proposed other theories as to why extended female sexuality may have evolved.

Shannonf94 (talk) 11:16, 19 February 2016 (UTC)

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