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Training and development involves improving the effectiveness of organizations and the individuals and teams within them.(CITE the Aguinis & Kraiger) While training (add in the link to training article) and development (add in the link to development article) technically have differing definitions, the two are oftentimes used interchangeably and/or together. Training may be viewed as related to more immediate changes in organizational effectiveness, while development is related to more long-term goals. Training and development has historically been a topic within applied psychology but has within the last two decades become closely associated with human resources management, human resources development, instructional design, human factors, and knowledge management.(CITE Aguinis & Kraiger)

History
The first training-related article was published in 1918 in the Journal of Applied Psychology. This article explored an undergraduate curriculum designed for applied psychologists.(CITE BELL). World War II influenced the focus of applied psychology research to be on effectiveness of training programs, particularly in military contexts.(CITE BELL) By the 1960s and 70s, the field began developing theories and conducting theory-based research because up until that point, the field had been rooted in trial-and-error intervention research. This era also brought along the development of new training methods such as the use of computers, television, case studies, and role playing.(CITE CAMPBELL). The scope of training and development also expanded to include cross-cultural training, focus on the development of the individual employee, and the use of new organization development (LINK ARTICLE) literature to frame training programs. The 1980s marked a shift to focus on how employees were receiving and implementing training programs, and encouraged the collection of data for evaluation purposes. (CITE BELL and BURKE & DAY 1986) The development piece of training and development became increasingly popular in the 1980s and 90s, with employees more frequently being influenced by the concept of "lifelong learning". (CITE BIRDI ALLEN & WARR). It was in this decade that research revealing the impact and importance of fostering a training and development-positive culture (including management and co-worker) was first conducted. (CITE BIRDI ALLEN & WARR) Training theories emerged, some of which were broader and involved the integration of cognitive psychology and transfer of skill. (CITE SALAS & CANNON-BOWERS) Other theories were more focused and studied individual characteristics that influenced the motivation to participate in training and development-related programs. The turn of the century brought more research in topics such as team-training, for example cross-training. (CITE MARKS, SABELLA, ETC) Cross-training emphasizes training in coworkers' responsibilities and can increase team functioning.(CITE BELL)

Practice
Training and development encompasses three main activities: training, education, and development.


 * Training: This activity is both focused upon, and evaluated against, the job that an individual currently holds.
 * Education: This activity focuses upon the jobs that an individual may potentially hold in the future, and is evaluated against those jobs.
 * Development: This activity focuses upon the activities that the organization employing the individual, or that the individual is part of, may partake in the future, and is almost impossible to evaluate.

The "stakeholders" in training and development are categorized into several classes. The sponsors of training and development are senior managers. The clients of training and development are business planners. Line managers are responsible for coaching, resources, and performance. The participants are those who actually undergo the processes. The facilitators are Human Resource Management staff. And the providers are specialists in the field. Each of these groups has its own agenda and motivations, which sometimes conflict with the agendas and motivations of the others.

Especially in the last couple decades, training has become more trainee-focused, which allows those being trained more flexibility and active learning opportunities. (CITE BELL & KOZLOWSKI) For example, these active learning techniques include exploratory/discovery learning (CITE MCDANIEL), error management training (CITE KEITH AND FRESSE), guided exploration (CITE WOOD ET AL), and mastery training (CITE Kozlowski & Bell (2006) Typical projects in the field include executive and supervisory/management development, new-employee orientation, professional-skills training, technical/job training, customer-service training, sales-and-marketing training, and health-and-safety training. Training is particularly critical in high-reliability organizations, which rely on high safety standards in order to prevent catastrophic damage to employees, equipment, or the environment (e.g. nuclear power plants, operating rooms). (CITE ROBERTS)

The Occupational Information Network (O*NET) cites training and development specialists as having a bright outlook, meaning that the occupation will grow rapidly or have several job openings in the next few years. Related professions include training and development managers, (chief) learning officers, industrial-organizational psychologists, and organization development consultants.(CITE O*NET PAGE) Training and development specialists are equipped with the tools to conduct needs analyses, build training programs to suit the needs of the organization by using a variety of training techniques, create training materials, and execute and guide training programs.

Talent development is the process of changing an organization, its employees, its stakeholders, and groups of people within it, using planned and unplanned learning, in order to achieve and maintain a competitive advantage for the organization. Rothwell notes that the name may well be a term in search of a meaning, like so much in management, and suggests that it be thought of as selective attention paid to the top 10% of employees, either by potential or performance.

While talent development is reserved for the top management it is becoming increasingly clear that career development is necessary for the retention of any employee, no matter what their level in the company. Research has shown that some type of career path is necessary for job satisfaction and hence job retention. Perhaps organizations need to include this area in their overview of employee satisfaction.[citation needed]

The term talent development is becoming increasingly popular in several organizations, as companies are now moving from the traditional term training and development. Talent development encompasses a variety of components such as training, career development, career management, and organizational development, and training and development. It is expected that during the 21st century more companies will begin to use more integrated terms such as talent development.[citation needed]

Training outcomes

 * include citations/facts about increased productivity, less supervision, job satisfaction, and skills development


 * Increased productivity
 * Less supervision
 * Job satisfaction
 * Skills development
 * Team development

However, if the training and development is not directed and pointed at specific goals, it can lead to more harm than good. (Cite Page-Tickell book). Needs assessments (tag article), especially when the training is being conducted on a large-scale, are frequently conducted in order to gauge what needs to be trained, how, and to what extent. (Cite Brown 2002 article). Needs assessments in the training and development context often reveal employee and management-specific skills to develop (e.g. for new employees), organizational-wide problems to address (e.g. performance issues), adaptations needed to suit changing environments (e.g. new technology), or employee development needs (e.g. career planning). The degree of effectiveness of training and development programs can be predicted by the needs assessment and how closely the needs were met, the execution of the training (i.e. how effective the trainer was), and trainee characteristics (e.g. motivation, cognitive abilities).(CITE TANENBAUM & YUKL)


 * give examples of HRO organizations- how training is super important

Case studies
Sources:

Leadership training design, delivery, and implementation: A meta-analysis.: EBSCOhost. (2017). Retrieved February 6, 2019, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/apl0000241


 * meta analysis of effective training interventions and contexts in which they're effective

Training and development handbook : a guide to human resource development Organizational behavior and personnel psychology (Wexley & Yuki) Personnel: The Human Problems of Management (Strauss & Sayles) Organizational Development (Siegfried)

References:
 * take out reference 1 (not a peer-reviewed article, is an Indian newspaper article)
 * take out reference 3 (not a peer-reviewed article and is biased because it is from a company-site that does t&d)