User:Shivamp1999/Machiavellianism (psychology)

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Machiavellianism is a continuous trait. A continuous trait displays a range of expression.

Narcissism and psychopathy
Machiavellianism is one of the three personality traits referred to as the dark triad, along with narcissism and psychopathy. Some psychologists consider Machiavellianism to be essentially a sub clinical form of psychopathy, as they both share manipulative tendencies and cold callousness as their primary attributes. The approach to testing variables for the dark triad can affect the results of the list of traits. Looking at raw versus residual data, in other words, looking at data for traits that are not predicted, versus those that are, can affect dark triad study results. Traits like narcissism, psychopathy and Machiavellianism are predicted for dark triad personality traits. When these traits are not already predetermined or listed as personality traits for dark triad, certain researchers believe data for unpredicted traits can be viewed more clearly. Using this approach, researchers have reported the dark triad is strongly correlated with less predicted traits like depression and anxiety. Dark triad has been found to be correlated with loneliness and stress as well. Traits like narcissism and psychopathy have been linked to addictive behavior, including substance abuse. The desire to self treat mental health and being more likely to be compulsive promotes the addictive behavior. More recent research suggests that while Machiavellianism and psychopathy overlap heavily, they are distinct personality constructs. Psychopathy differs from Machiavellianism only in impulsivity, a lack of  long-term  planning and self control, as psychopaths tend to be reckless. Both personality traits share more personal and social costs compared to narcissism.

Game theory
In 2002, the Machiavellianism scale of Christie and Geis was applied by behavioral game theorists Anna Gunnthorsdottir, Kevin McCabe and Vernon L. Smith in their search for explanations for the spread of observed behavior in experimental games, in particular individual choices which do not correspond to assumptions of material self-interest captured by the standard Nash equilibrium prediction. It was found that in a trust game, those with high Mach-IV scores tended to follow Homo economicus' equilibrium strategies while those with low Mach-IV scores tended to deviate from the equilibrium, and instead made choices that reflected widely accepted moral standards and social preferences. Video games are player controlled thus allowing easier manipulation for individuals that are high in Machiavellianism.

Media
''In the past couple of decades, popular media and violence have increased through TV shows, movies, and video games. Portrayal of these two successes showed how people react to violence or detrimental experiences one faces. Repeated exposure of this media has led to desensitization in individuals. Schadenfreude is defined as finding pleasure from another person's misfortune. Machiavellianism is positively correlated with schadenfreude since individuals can see similar traits being displayed. There is a correlation between media violence humor and Machiavellianism. Popular medias achieve this correlation by manipulating others to illicit a certain reaction.''

In the workplace
Machiavellianism is also studied by organizational psychologists, especially those who study manipulative behaviors in workplace settings. ''Workplace behaviors in this setting are associated with self-serving behavior. '' Workplace behaviors associated with this concept include flattery, deceit, coercion, workplace cheating behaviors, and abusive supervision. Narcissism and psychopathy are the dominant indicators of workplace deviance. Manipulative behaviors in the workplace encompass cheating behaviors because they are ultimately done to advance personal interests through being deceptive. ''People who are considered "High-Machs" partake in emotionally manipulative behaviors. High-Machs do not lack emotional skills.'' Machiavellianism is highly associated with cutting corners in work environments to complete tasks as well. ''Individuals follow a sycophantic method to gain the resources to perform better and advance on their tasks. This self-serving behavior will have an adverse effect''.

Emotional neglect is when a person's feelings are repeatedly invalidated and/or ignored. Employees who feel neglected at their workplace may retaliate with revengeful behavior. Self-deception is practice of permitting oneself to accept that a misleading or invalidated feeling is valid. Self-deception links both emotional neglect and unethical workplace behaviors.

Machiavellianism can also have a moderating effect on job pursuit intentions. This is because job seekers have access to so many internet resources that can provide information and background on potential employers. This wide availability of information about an organization's political climate can have a huge effect on the recruiting process. Machiavellianism can be a moderator in this relationship because "this trait reflects the extent to which an individual would 'fit' into a highly political work environment". Research has found individuals with Dark Triad traits are drawn to entrepreneurship. qualities of confidence, charisma and risk taking found in Dark Triad traits are associated with successful entrepreneurship execution.

To combat Machiavellianism in the workplace, employees must be trained on ethical and moral foundations.