User:Simone Aiello/sandbox

The Russian alphabet (ру́сский алфави́т or, more traditionally, ру́сская а́збука) was derived from Cyrillic script for Old Church Slavonic language. Initially an old variant of the Bulgarian alphabet, it became used in the Kievan Rus' since 10th century to write what would become the Russian language. The modern Russian alphabet consists of 33 letters. It has twenty consonants ($⟨б⟩$, $⟨в⟩$, $⟨г⟩$, $⟨д⟩$, $⟨ж⟩$, $⟨з⟩$, $⟨к⟩$, $⟨л⟩$, $⟨м⟩$, $⟨н⟩$, $⟨п⟩$, $⟨р⟩$, $⟨с⟩$, $⟨т⟩$, $⟨ф⟩$, $⟨х⟩$, $⟨ц⟩$, $⟨ч⟩$, $⟨ш⟩$, $⟨щ⟩$), ten vowels ($⟨а⟩$, $⟨е⟩$, $⟨ё⟩$, $⟨и⟩$, $⟨о⟩$, $⟨у⟩$, $⟨ы⟩$, $⟨э⟩$, $⟨ю⟩$, $⟨я⟩$), a semivowel ($⟨й⟩$), and two modifier letters that alter a preceding consonant ($⟨ь⟩$ and $⟨ъ⟩$).

Letters

 * An alternative form of the letter El (Л л ) closely resembles the Greek letter lambda (Λ λ ).

Consonant letters represent both "soft" (palatalized, represented in the IPA with a ⟨ʲ⟩) and "hard" consonant phonemes. If consonant letters are followed by vowel letters, the soft/hard quality of the consonant depends on whether the vowel is meant to follow "hard" consonants $⟨а, о, э, у, ы⟩$ or "soft" consonants $⟨я, ё, е, ю, и⟩$; see below. A soft sign indicates $⟨Ь⟩$ palatalization of the preceding consonant without adding a vowel. However, in modern Russian six consonant phonemes do not have phonemically distinct "soft" and "hard" variants (except in foreign proper names) and do not change "softness" in the presence of other letters:, and are always hard; , and are always soft. See Russian phonology for details.

Hard sign
The hard sign ($⟨ъ⟩$) acts like a "silent back vowel" that separates a succeeding "soft vowel" ($⟨е, ё, ю, я⟩$, but not $⟨и⟩$) from a preceding consonant, invoking implicit iotation of the vowel with a distinct glide. Today it is used mostly to separate a prefix ending with a hard consonant from the following root. Its original pronunciation, lost by 1400 at the latest, was that of a very short middle schwa-like sound, likely pronounced or. Until the 1918 reform, no written word could end in a consonant: those that end in a "hard" consonant in modern orthography then had a final $⟨ъ⟩$.

While $⟨и⟩$ is also a soft vowel, root-initial following a hard consonant is typically pronounced as. This is normally spelled $⟨ы⟩$ (the hard counterpart to $⟨и⟩$) unless this vowel occurs at the beginning of a word, in which case it remains $⟨и⟩$. An alternation between the two letters (but not the sounds) can be seen with the pair без и́мени ('without name', which is pronounced ) and безымя́нный ('nameless', which is pronounced ). This spelling convention, however, is not applied with certain loaned prefixes such as in the word панислами́зм –, 'Pan-Islamism') and compound (multi-root) words (e.g. госизме́на – , 'high treason').

Soft sign
The soft sign ($⟨ь⟩$) in most positions acts like a "silent front vowel" and indicates that the preceding consonant is palatalized (except for always-hard ж, ш, ц) and the following vowel (if present) is iotated (including $⟨ьо⟩$ in loans). This is important as palatalization is phonemic in Russian. For example, брат ('brother') contrasts with брать  ('to take'). The original pronunciation of the soft sign, lost by 1400 at the latest, was that of a very short fronted reduced vowel but likely pronounced  or. There are still some remnants of this ancient reading in modern Russian, e.g. in co-existing versions of the same name, read and written differently, such as Марья and Мария ('Mary').

When applied after stem-final always-soft (ч, щ, but not й) or always-hard (ж, ш, but not ц) consonants, the soft sign does not alter pronunciation, but has grammatical significance:
 * the feminine marker for singular nouns in the nominative and accusative; e.g. тушь ('India ink', feminine) cf. туш ('flourish after a toast', masculine) – both pronounced ;
 * the imperative mood for some verbs;
 * the infinitives of some verbs (with -чь ending);
 * the second person for non-past verbs (with -шь ending);
 * some adverbs and particles.

Vowels
Some of the vowels, $⟨е, ё, и, ю, я⟩$, indicate a preceding palatalized consonant and with the exception of $⟨и⟩$ are iotated (pronounced with a preceding ) when written at the beginning of a word or following another vowel (initial $⟨и⟩$ was iotated until the nineteenth century). The IPA vowels shown are a guideline only and sometimes are realized as different sounds, particularly when unstressed. However, $⟨е⟩$ may be used in words of foreign origin without palatalization, and $⟨я⟩$ is often realized as between soft consonants, such as in мяч ("toy ball").

$⟨ы⟩$ is an old Proto-Slavic close central vowel, thought to have been preserved better in modern Russian than in other Slavic languages. It was originally nasalized in certain positions: камы ; камень ("rock"). Its written form developed as follows: $⟨ъ⟩$ + $⟨і⟩$ → $⟨ꙑ⟩$ → $⟨ы⟩$.

$⟨э⟩$ was introduced in 1708 to distinguish the non-iotated/non-palatalizing from the iotated/palatalizing one. The original usage had been $⟨е⟩$ for the un-iotated, $⟨ѥ⟩$ or $⟨ѣ⟩$ for the iotated, but $⟨ѥ⟩$ had dropped out of use by the sixteenth century. In native Russian words, $⟨э⟩$ is found only at the beginnings of words or in compound words (e.g. поэтому 'therefore' = по + этому). In words that come from foreign languages in which iotated is uncommon or nonexistent (such as English), $⟨э⟩$ is usually written in the beginning of words and after vowels except $⟨и⟩$ (e.g. поэт, poet), and  $⟨е⟩$ after $⟨и⟩$ and consonants. However, the pronunciation is inconsistent. Many of these borrowed words, especially monosyllables, words ending in $⟨е⟩$ and many words where $⟨е⟩$ follows $⟨т⟩$, $⟨д⟩$, $⟨н⟩$, $⟨с⟩$, $⟨з⟩$ or $⟨р⟩$, are pronounced with without palatalization or iotation: секс (seks — 'sex'), проект (proekt — 'project'; in this example, the spelling is etymological but the pronunciation is counter-etymological). But many other words are pronounced with : секта (syekta — 'sect'), дебют (dyebyut — 'debut'). Proper names are usually not affected by this rule (Сэм — 'Sam', Пэмела — 'Pamela', Мао Цзэдун — 'Mao Zedong'); the use of $⟨э⟩$ after consonants is common in East Asian names and in English names with the sounds and, with some exceptions such as Джек ('Jack') and Шепард ('Shepard'), since both $⟨э⟩$ and $⟨е⟩$, in cases of же ("zhe"), ше ("she") and це ("tse"), follow consonants that are always hard (non-palatalized), yet  $⟨е⟩$ usually prevails in writing.

$⟨ё⟩$, introduced by Karamzin in 1797 and made official in 1943 by the Soviet Ministry of Education, marks a sound that historically developed from stressed. The written letter $⟨ё⟩$ is optional; it is formally correct to write $⟨e⟩$ for both and. None of the several attempts in the twentieth century to mandate the use of $⟨ё⟩$ have stuck.

Letters in disuse by 1750
$⟨ѯ⟩$ and $⟨ѱ⟩$ derived from Greek letters xi and psi, used etymologically though inconsistently in secular writing until the eighteenth century, and more consistently to the present day in Church Slavonic.

$⟨ѡ⟩$ is the Greek letter omega, identical in pronunciation to $⟨о⟩$, used in secular writing until the eighteenth century, but to the present day in Church Slavonic, mostly to distinguish inflexional forms otherwise written identically.

$⟨ѕ⟩$ corresponded to a more archaic pronunciation, already absent in East Slavic at the start of the historical period, but kept by tradition in certain words until the eighteenth century in secular writing, and in Church Slavonic and Macedonian to the present day.

The yuses $⟨ѫ⟩$ and $⟨ѧ⟩$, letters that originally used to stand for nasalized vowels and, had become, according to linguistic reconstruction, irrelevant for East Slavic phonology already at the beginning of the historical period, but were introduced along with the rest of the Cyrillic script. The letters $⟨ѭ⟩$ and $⟨ѩ⟩$ had largely vanished by the twelfth century. The uniotated $⟨ѫ⟩$ continued to be used, etymologically, until the sixteenth century. Thereafter it was restricted to being a dominical letter in the Paschal tables. The seventeenth-century usage of $⟨ѫ⟩$ and $⟨ѧ⟩$ (see next note) survives in contemporary Church Slavonic, and the sounds (but not the letters) in Polish.

The letter $⟨ѧ⟩$ was adapted to represent the iotated $⟨я⟩$ in the middle or end of a word; the modern letter $⟨я⟩$ is an adaptation of its cursive form of the seventeenth century, enshrined by the typographical reform of 1708.

Until 1708, the iotated was written $⟨ꙗ⟩$ at the beginning of a word. This distinction between $⟨ѧ⟩$ and $⟨ꙗ⟩$ survives in Church Slavonic.

Although it is usually stated that the letters labelled "fallen into disuse by the eighteenth century" in the table above were eliminated in the typographical reform of 1708, reality is somewhat more complex. The letters were indeed originally omitted from the sample alphabet, printed in a western-style serif font, presented in Peter's edict, along with the letters $⟨з⟩$ (replaced by $⟨ѕ⟩$), $⟨и⟩$, and $⟨ф⟩$ (the diacriticized letter $⟨й⟩$ was also removed), but were reinstated except $⟨ѱ⟩$ and $⟨ѡ⟩$ under pressure from the Russian Orthodox Church in a later variant of the modern typeface (1710). Nonetheless, since 1735 the Russian Academy of Sciences began to use fonts without $⟨ѕ⟩$, $⟨ѯ⟩$, and $⟨ѵ⟩$; however, $⟨ѵ⟩$ was sometimes used again since 1758.

Although praised by Western scholars and philosophers, it was criticized by clergy and many conservative scholars, who found the new standard too, "Russified". Some even went as far as to refer to Peter as the Anti-Christ.

Lomonosov also contributed to the Russian alphabet, developing a, "High Style" which would be based on traditional orthography and language, and to be used in formal situations such as a religious texts. As well as, "Low Style" and, "Medium Style", deemed for less formal events and casual writing. Lomonosov advocated for the, "Middle Style", which later became the basis of the modern Russian orthography.

Treatment of foreign sounds
Because Russian borrows terms from other languages, there are various conventions for sounds not present in Russian.

For example, while Russian has no, there are a number of common words (particularly proper nouns) borrowed from languages like English and German that contain such a sound in the original language. In well-established terms, such as галлюцинация ('hallucination'), this is written with $⟨и⟩$ and pronounced with, while newer terms use $⟨й⟩$, pronounced with , such as хобби  ('hobby').

Similarly, words originally with in their source language are either pronounced with ), as in the name Тельма ('Thelma') or, if borrowed early enough, with  or, as in the names Фёдор ('Theodore') and Матве́й ('Matthew').

For the affricate, which is common in the Asian countries that were part of the Russian Empire and the USSR, the letter combination $⟨патріархъ⟩$ is used: this is often transliterated into English either as $⟨міръ⟩$ or the Dutch form $⟨миръ⟩$.

Numeric values
The numerical values correspond to the Greek numerals, with $⟨е⟩$ being used for digamma, $⟨ф⟩$ for koppa, and $⟨Ѳёдоръ⟩$ for sampi. The system was abandoned for secular purposes in 1708, after a transitional period of a century or so; it continues to be used in Church Slavonic, while general Russian texts use Hindu-Arabic numerals and Roman numerals.

Diacritics
Russian spelling uses fewer diacritics than those used for most European languages. The only diacritic, in the proper sense, is the acute accent $⟨Фёдор⟩$ (Russian: знак ударения 'mark of stress'), which marks stress on a vowel, as it is done in Spanish and Greek. Although Russian word stress is often unpredictable and can fall on different syllables in different forms of the same word, the diacritic is used only in dictionaries, children's books, resources for foreign-language learners, the defining entry (in bold) in articles on Russian Wikipedia, or on minimal pairs distinguished only by stress (for instance, за́мок 'castle' vs. замо́к 'lock'). Rarely, it is used to specify the stress in uncommon foreign words and in poems with unusual stress used to fit the meter. Unicode has no code points for the accented letters; they are instead produced by suffixing the unaccented letter with.

The letter $⟨и⟩$ is a special variant of the letter $⟨в⟩$, which is not always distinguished in written Russian, but the umlaut-like sign has no other uses. Stress on this letter is never marked, as it is always stressed except in some loanwords.

Unlike the case of $⟨у⟩$, the letter $⟨аѵто-⟩$ has completely separated from $⟨авто⟩$. It has been used since the 16th century except that it was removed in 1708 but reinstated in 1735. Since then, its usage has been mandatory. It was formerly considered a diacriticized letter, but in the 20th century, it came to be considered a separate letter of the Russian alphabet. It was classified as a "semivowel" by 19th- and 20th-century grammarians but since the 1970s, it has been considered a consonant letter.

Keyboard layout
The standard Russian keyboard layout for personal computers is as follows:


 * KB Russian.svg

However, there are several variations of so-called "phonetic keyboards" that are often used by non-Russians, where, as far as is possible, pressing an English letter key will type the Russian letter with a similar sound (A → А, S → С, D → Д, F → Ф, etc.).

Letter names
Until approximately the year 1900, mnemonic names inherited from Church Slavonic were used for the letters. They are given here in the pre-1918 orthography of the post-1708 civil alphabet.

The Russian poet Alexander Pushkin wrote: "The [names of the] letters that make up the Slavonic alphabet don't represent a meaning at all. Аз, буки, веди, глаголь, добро etc. are individual words, chosen just for their initial sound". However, since the names of the first few letters of the Slavonic alphabet seem to form readable text, attempts have been made to compose meaningful snippets of text from groups of consecutive letters for the rest of the alphabet.

Here is one such attempt to "decode" the message:

In this attempt only lines 1, 2 and 5 somewhat correspond to real meanings of the letters' names, while "translations" in other lines seem to be fabrications or fantasies. For example, "покой" ("rest" or "apartment") does not mean "the Universe", and "ферт" does not have any meaning in Russian or other Slavic languages (there are no words of Slavic origin beginning with "f" at all). The last line contains only one translatable word – "червь" ("worm"), which, however, was not included in the "translation".