User:Sofia2520/New sandbox

SOPHIA: You have added quite a bit of information here and are progressing with all the required training! My major suggestion is to try and create the proper layout and format for your submission as per wikipedia guidelines :) I notice you have already drafted a bibliography and chosen an image in your other sandboxes! You might try and work to get everything in one place for the final submission! Good work here, especially considering your travel circumstances recently :) Great start! - Professor Robinson

I have worked on this article named Photo manipulation. Some parts are from the original article, which I copied from the article as they were written in a clear way with references. In every heading I added more information while keeping the original content. I did add one new heading called 'In advertising'. Photo manipulation involves transforming or altering a photograph using various methods and techniques to achieve desired results. Some photo manipulations are considered skillful artwork while others are frowned upon as unethical practices, especially when used to deceive the public. Other examples include being used for political propaganda, or to make a product or person look better, or simply for entertainment purposes or harmless pranks.

Depending on the application and intent, some photo manipulations are considered an art form because it involves the creation of unique images and in some instances, signature expressions of art by photographic artists. For example, Ansel Adams employed some of the more common manipulations using darkroom exposure techniques, burning (darkening) and dodging (lightening) a photograph. Other examples of photo manipulation include retouching photographs using ink or paint, airbrushing, double exposure, piecing photos or negatives together in the darkroom, scratching instant films, or through the use of software-based manipulation tools applied to digital images. There are a number of software applications available for digital image manipulation, ranging from professional applications to very basic imaging software for casual users.

Early
An early example of tampering was in the early 1860s, when a photo was altered using the body from a portrait of John C. Calhoun and the head of Lincoln from a famous seated portrait by Mathew Brady – the same portrait which was the basis for the original Lincoln five-dollar bill. Another is exampled in the Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Online Catalogue wherein it exposes a manipulated American Civil War photograph of General Ulysses S. Grant posing horseback in front of his troops at City Point, Virginia. Close observation of the photograph raises questions and brings to light certain details in the photograph that simply do not add up. For example, Grant's head is set at a strange angle to his body, his uniform is of a different time period, and his favorite horse Cincinnati did not have a left hind sock like the horse in the photograph, although his other horse Egypt did have a sock but on a different foot. With further research, three different photographs were discovered that explained the composite using Grant's head from one photograph, the body of Major General Alexander McDowell McCook atop his horse from another photograph, and for the background, and 1864 photograph of Confederate prisoners captured at the Battle of Fisher's Hill. Queen Victoria herself once scratched out her own face on the negative of a family picture made in 1852, as she found herself 'horrid' looking. After this picture, she became more aware of how she looks in pictures and made sure to look a certain way.

In the 20th century, digital retouching became available with Quantel computers running Paintbox in professional environments, which, alongside other contemporary packages, were effectively replaced in the market by Adobe Photoshop and other editing software for graphic imaging.

Political and ethical issues
Photo manipulation has been used to deceive or persuade viewers or improve storytelling and self-expression. Often even subtle and discreet changes can have a profound impact on how we interpret or judge a photograph, making it all the more important to know when or if manipulation has occurred. As early as the American Civil War, photographs were published as engravings based on more than one negative. In 1860 a photograph of the politician John Calhoun was manipulated and his body was used in another photograph with the head of the president of the United States, Abraham Lincoln. This photo credits itself as the first manipulated photo.

Joseph Stalin made use of photo retouching for propaganda purposes. On May 5, 1920 his predecessor Vladimir Lenin held a speech for Soviet troops that Leon Trotsky attended. Stalin had Trotsky retouched out of a photograph showing Trotsky in attendance. In a well known case of damnatio memoriae image manipulation, NKVD leader Nikolai Yezhov (the "Vanishing Commissar"), after his execution in 1940, was removed from an official press photo where he was pictured with Stalin. (For more information, see Censorship of images in the Soviet Union.) The pioneer among journalists distorting photographic images for news value was Bernarr Macfadden: in the mid-1920s, his "composograph" process involved reenacting real news events with costumed body doubles and then photographing the dramatized scenes—then pasting faces of the real news-personalities (gathered from unrelated photos) onto his staged images. In the 1930s, artist John Heartfield used a type of photo manipulation known as the photomontage to critique Nazi propaganda.

Some ethical theories have been applied to image manipulation. During a panel on the topic of ethics in image manipulation Aude Oliva theorized that categorical shifts are necessary in order for an edited image to be viewed as a manipulation. In Image Act Theory, Carson Reynolds extended speech act theory by applying it to photo editing and image manipulations. In "How to Do Things with Pictures", William J. Mitchell details the long history of photo manipulation and discusses it critically.

Use in fashion
The photo manipulation industry has often been accused of promoting or inciting a distorted and unrealistic image of self; most specifically in younger people. The world of glamour photography is one specific industry which has been heavily involved with the use of photo manipulation (what many consider to be a concerning element as many people look up to celebrities in search of embodying the 'ideal figure'). Manipulation of a photo to alter a model's appearance can be used to change features such as skin complexion, hair color, body shape, and other features. Many of the alterations to skin involve removing blemishes through the use of the healing tool in Photoshop. Photo editors may also alter the color of hair to remove roots or add shine. Additionally, the model's teeth and eyes may be made to look whiter than they are in reality. Make up and piercings can even be edited into pictures to look as though the model was wearing them when the photo was taken. Through photo editing, the appearance of a model may be drastically changed to mask imperfections.

In an article entitled, Confessions of a Retoucher: how the modeling industry is harming women, a professional retoucher who has worked for mega-fashion brands shares the industry's secrets. Along with fixing imperfections like skin wrinkles and smoothing features, the size of the model is manipulated by either adding or subtracting visible weight. Reverse retouching is just as common as making models skinnier, “distorting the bodies of very thin models to make them appear more robust in a process called reverse retouching. It is almost worse than making someone slimmer because the image claims you can be at an unhealthy weight but still look healthy. In reality, you can't, you have to Photoshop it". Reverse retouching includes eliminating shadows from protruding bones, adding flesh over body parts, color correcting, and removing hair generated for warmth from extreme weight loss. Professionals are saying that if an image is not labeled "not retouched," then the public can assume that photograph has been modified. As the fashion industry continues to use photos that have been manipulated to idealize body types, there is a need for education about how unreal and unhealthy these images are and the negative implications they are promoting.

A photoshop expert, who edited and altered a lot of images for the fashion industry and wants to remain private, says it's normal to photoshop a model thinner and it doesn't matter how thick or thin the model is. They usually edit away up to 10 kilo's. But in the past 20 years, the practice has changed as more celebrities are on social media and the public is now used to how they look. You can't alter their bodies or faces too much as the public will notice that. The retoucher notes that the industry is made for making a lot of dollars in advertising and that the unrealistic ideals cycle will continue as they have to maintain this.

Since 2012, Seventeen Magazine has let the public know that they stopped photoshopping their models. This happened after 14 year old Julia Bluhm started a petition were she demanded that the magazine use, with a minimum of one, unaltered photo in their spread. The petition got over 84,000 signatures.

In social media
Not only are photos being manipulated by professionals for the media, but also with the rise of social media everyone has easy access to edit photos they post online. Countless apps have been created to allow smartphone user tools to modify personal images. These apps allow people to edit virtually every aspect in the photo focusing on the face and body represented. With social media users and the younger generation being exposed to an extreme amount of imagery that has been manipulated the consequences have a negative impact as body ideals are unachievable. Social media has the opportunity to be used as a platform for promoting healthy body image and unedited photos; the need for approval over social media has to be altered in the near future.

Apps like Facetune are used a lot by celebrities and influencers on social media. An example is Khloe Kardashian. It was the bestselling app for Apple in 2017 and it sold around 10 million times copies. Facetune 2 is an upgrade of the original version and has more features like live editing. With live editing it means you can edit your camera before you take a picture. Normally you would edit a picture after you have taken it, but now you can do it before and alter yourself to your liking.

In advertising
Photo manipulation is not only used by fashion magazines, celebrities and influencers, it's also used in advertisement for Tv commercials and magazines. They use this to make their products or the person look better and more appealing than how they look in reality. A few tricks that are used with photo manipulation for advertising are: fake grill marks with eye-liner, instead of milk use white glue, to make vegetables look glossy use deodorant, ice-cream melts quick so they use masked potato's. In food photographs we see for example a perfect looking burger, with bright colours. But in reality when you receive the burger, it's very sad looking. But as consumers we accept this, we find it normal that the burger we buy is not the same as in the picture. When a consumer buys a laptop, it's the same one as in the picture.

Celebrity opposition
Photo manipulation has triggered negative responses from both viewers and celebrities. This has led to celebrities refusing to have their photos retouched in support of the American Medical Association that has decided that "[we] must stop exposing impressionable children and teenagers to advertisements portraying models with body types only attainable with the help of photo editing software" These include Keira Knightley, Brad Pitt, Andy Roddick, Jessica Simpson, Lady Gaga and Zendaya.

Brad Pitt had a photographer, Chuck Close, take photos of him that emphasized all of his flaws. Chuck Close is known for his photos that emphasize all skin flaws of an individual. Pitt did so in an effort to speak out against media using photoshop and manipulating celebrities’ photos in an attempt to hide their flaws. Kate Winslet spoke out against photo manipulation in media after GQ magazine altered her body, making it look unnaturally thin. And 42-year-old Cate Blanchett appeared on the cover of Intelligent Life's 2012 March/April issue, makeup-free and without digital retouching for the first time.

In April 2010, Britney Spears agreed to release "un-airbrushed images of herself next to the digitally altered ones". The fundamental motive behind her move was to "highlight the pressure exerted on women to look perfect". In 2014, Hungarian pop vocalist and songwriter Boggie produced two music videos that achieved global attention for its stance on whitewashing in the beauty industry: the #1 MAHASZ chart hit "Parfüm" (Hungarian version) and "Nouveau Parfum" (French version) from her self-titled album Boggie, which reached two Billboard charts (#3 Jazz Album, #17 World Music Album). In the videos, the artist is shown singing as she is extensively retouched in real-time, ending with a side-by-side comparison of her natural and manipulated images as the song fades out.

Another influencer, who is also a certified fitness instructor, named Cassey Ho expressed how the digital age has an impact on her body image and how she se struggles with it. To show how much influence cyberbullying can have on somebodies body image, she edited herself in her videos she posted on her social media. The videos went viral. Cassey also looked for the 100 most-followed influencers, who are female, and noted 22 physical attributes. She classified these as 'Instagram beauty standard'. Examples of these beauty standards are a flat stomach and filled lips. After looking it up and classifying these standards, Cassey applied them to her own pictures and photoshopped them. To make sure her followers on Instagram get more aware about these Instagram beauty standards, she posted the before-and-after and that not everything on Instagram is what it seems to be. Not everybody reacted positive on Cassey's revelation. Some found that she pushed the talent of the influencers and celebrities aside while analyzing these pictures. They also claimed she focused too much on their appearance.

Government opposition
Governments are exerting pressure on advertisers, and are starting to ban photos that are too airbrushed and edited. In the United Kingdom the Advertising Standards Authority has banned an advertisement by Lancôme featuring Julia Roberts for being misleading, stating that the flawless skin seen in the photo was too good to be true. The US is also moving in the direction of banning excessive photo manipulation where a CoverGirl model's ad was banned because it had exaggerated effects, leading to a misleading representation of the product.

In 2015, France proceeded to pass a law that battles against the use of unrealistic body images and anorexia in the fashion industry. This includes modeling and photography. The models now have to show they are healthy and have a BMI of over 18 through a note from their doctor. Employers who don't attain to this law will be fined and can serve a jail sentence up to 6 months. When a creator of a photograph does not disclose that the picture is edited or retouched, no matter how small the edit, they also can get a fine or 30% of the costs of what they used to create their ad.

Digital fakes
A digital fake refers to a digital video, photo, or audio file that has been altered or manipulated by digital application software. Deepfake videos fall within the category of a digital fake media, but video may be digitally altered without being considered a deepfake. The alterations can be done for entertainment purposes, or more nefarious purposes such as spreading disinformation. The information can be used to conduct malicious attacks, political gains, financial crime, or fraud.

Deepfake is used the most in pornographic style videos. In September 2019, around 15.000 Deepfake videos were found online by a firm named Deeptrace. In those videos, 99% were faces used from female celebrities and put on the body's of porn stars. This new technique is used with just a couple of photos and will be used as revenge porn by anybody, not just by celebreties. A professor of law named Danielle Citron says: 'Deepfake technology is being weaponised against women.' Deepfake looks realistic even when it's made completely from fictional photos. It can also manipulate voices and let somebody say something they would never say. That makes it also very convincing.