User:SomeGuyWhoRandomlyEdits/Kish (Sumer)

Kish is an important archaeological site in Babil Governorate (Iraq). Kish is located east of Babylon and 80 km south of Baghdad. The Kish archaeological site is an oval area roughly 8 by, transected by the dry former bed of the Euphrates river, encompassing around 40 mounds, the largest being Tell al-Uhaymir and Tell Ingharra.

Ubaid period (c. 6500 – c. 3700 BC)
Kish was occupied from the Ubaid period (c.5300-4300 BC).

Early Dynastic I period (c. 2900 – c. 2700 BC)
Kish gained prominence as one of the pre-eminent powers in the region during the Early Dynastic Period when it reached its maximum extent of 230 hectares.

First dynasty of Kish (c. 2900 – c. 2670 BC)
The SKL states that Kish was the first city to have kings following a flood (beginning with Jushur); moreover, it indicated the existence of a Semitic population in the regions of the Diyala river and upper Mesopotamia. Jushur's successor is referred to as Kullassina-bel; additionally, this is an East Semitic sentence meaning all of them were lord. Thus, some scholars have suggested that this may have been intended to signify the absence of a central authority in Kish for a time. The names of the next ten kings of Kish (preceding Etana) are: Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana, Babum, Puannum, Kalibum, Kalumum, Zuqaqip, Atab, Mashda, and Arwium. Most of these names are East Semitic words for animals (e.g. Zuqaqip means scorpion); in fact, most of the names of the first dynasty of Kish (aside from Enmebaragesi and Aga) may have been Kishite names.

The Semitic nature of their names revealed that the city's population may have had a strong Semitic component from the dawn of recorded history. A Bayesian analysis suggested an origin for all known Semitic languages with a population of ancient Semitic-speaking peoples migrating from the Levant c. 3750 BC; furthermore, spreading into Mesopotamia and possibly contributing to the collapse of the Uruk period c. 3100 BC. Kish has been identified as the center of the earliest known East Semitic culture—its own civilization. This early East Semitic culture is characterized by linguistic, literary, and orthographic similarities extending across settlements such as Ebla, Mari, Abu Salabikh, and Nagar.

The similarities include the use of a writing system that contained non-Sumerian logograms, the use of the same system in naming the months of the year, dating by regnal years, and a measuring system (among many others). However, the existence of a single authority ruling those lands has not been assumed as each city had its own monarchical system, in addition to some linguistic differences for while the languages of Mari and Ebla were closely related, Kish represented an independent East Semitic linguistic entity that spoke a sort of dialect (Kishite), different from both pre-Sargonic Akkadian and Eblaite. The East Semitic languages are one of three divisions of the Semitic languages, and is attested by three distinct languages: Kishite, Akkadian, and Eblaite (all of which have been long extinct). Kishite is the oldest known Semitic language.

Throughout the third millennium BC, an intimate cultural symbiosis developed between Sumerians and Semites (which included widespread bilingualism). The influence of the Sumerian and East Semitic languages on each other is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a substantial scale to syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence. This has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and the East Semitic languages during the third millennium BC as a sprachbund.

First dynasty of Uruk (c. 2670 – c. 2570 BC)
The Early Dynastic (ED) period begins c. 2900 BC and was associated with a shift from the temple establishment headed by council of elders led by a priestly "lord" towards a more secular "king" and includes such legendary patriarchal figures as Dumuzid, Lugalbanda and Gilgamesh—who reigned shortly before the historic record opens c. 2900 BC, when the now-deciphered syllabic writing started to develop from the early pictograms. The center of Sumerian culture remained in lower Mesopotamia, even though rulers soon began expanding into neighboring areas, and neighboring Semitic groups adopted much of Sumerian culture for their own. The SKL stated that Kish was the first city to have kings following the flood. After the first twelve kings a massive flood devastated Mesopotamia.

The earliest ED king on the SKL whose name is known from other legendary sources is Etana, whom it called "the shepherd, who ascended to heaven and consolidated all the foreign countries". According to the Sumerians: Ishtar gave the kingship to Etana after the flood. This implies that the historical Etana stabilized the kingdom by bringing peace and order to the area after the flood. Etana is also sometimes credited with the founding of Kish. He was estimated to have lived sometime c. 3000.

The earliest king on the SKL whose historical existence has been independently attested through archaeological inscription is Enmebaragesi, said to have defeated Elam and built the temple of Enlil in Nippur. Enmebaragesi is also known through other literary references, in which he and his son (Aga) were portrayed as contemporary rivals of Dumuzid and Gilgamesh of Uruk. Enmebaragesi was mentioned in the Epic of Gilgamesh—leading to the suggestion that Gilgamesh himself might have been a historical king of Uruk. As the Epic of Gilgamesh shows, this period was associated with increased warfare. Cities had become walled, and increased in size as undefended villages in southern Mesopotamia disappeared.

Aga is said to have fought against Gilgamesh. From this time, for a period Uruk seems to have had some kind of hegemony in Sumer. This illustrates a weakness of the SKL, as contemporaries are often placed in successive dynasties, making reconstruction difficult.

Twin ziggurats
Tell Ingharra is believed to be the location of Hursagkalamma, east of Kish home of a temple of Inanna. Twin ziggurats were found there. Located in the eastern side of the ancient Kish, Tell Ingharra was extensively explored during the Chicago excavation and provided the best known archaeological sequence in the 3rd millennium BC site. In particular, the 1923 excavation concentrated heavily on mound E with its twin ziggurats, while the Neo-Babylonian temple was one of the two buildings that was properly described in a published report.

The twin ziggurats were built of small plano-convex bricks in a herringbone fashion on the summit of Tell Ingharra. The larger one is located on the south-west side of the temple and the smaller one on the south-east side. The excavation report mainly focused on the larger ziggurat while there had been only one report on the smaller one by Mackay. Based on the findings from the larger ziggurat, it is suggested that the structures were built at the end of the Early Dynastic IIIa period to commemorate the city. The fascination of the ziggurats was interesting to the excavators as it was the only Early Dynastic structure that was not destroyed or obscured by later reconstructions, which was why it provided valuable evidence of that time period.

The Sumerian Palace
Mound A, which includes a cemetery and a palace, was discovered during 1922-1925 excavations conducted by Ernest Mackay, under the Field Museum and Oxford University. Although it was earlier a part of the Ingharra mounds lying about 70 meters to the north, it is now separated by an alluvial valley. The seals and other artifacts found in the graves, dating back to a later age than the palace, show that the site was used as a cemetery even in the pre-Sargonic times.

The palace, which was unearthed beneath the mound, had fallen into decay and was used as a burial ground during Early Dynastic III. It comprises three sections - the original building, the eastern wing and stairway, and the annex. The original building, which was composed of unbaked plano-convex bricks (23 x 15 x 3.50-6 cm), had extremely thick walls, while the annex, which was added later to the south of the building, had comparatively thinner walls. A 2.30 m wide passage was constructed within the outer wall of the original building to prevent invaders from entering the structure. The archaeological findings within the palace lack pottery items, the most remarkable among them was a fragment of slate and limestone inlay work, which represents the scene of a king punishing a prisoner.

Plano-Convex Building
Area P is located in the northern part of Kish where the "Plano-Convex Building" (PCB) resided. This area was unearthed during the second excavation season (1923-1924) led by Mackay, which uncovered the PCB. But outstanding discoveries in Palace A rapidly overshadowed the contemporary excavation here, and the building remained partially uncovered.

Revealed by its stratigraphy and pottery assemblage was the existence of three distinct architectural phases. The earliest archaeological occupation dates back to the ED II period. Above it, rested the massive ED III construction – the PCB. Multiple rooms in the PCB exhibited layers of ashes and charcoals with arrowheads and copper blades, attested that the PCB suffered significant destruction twice during the late ED III period. After its destruction, the PCB was abandoned. Located above later floors of the PCB were scattered burials during the Akkadian period.

The Plano-convex building was a fortified construction built extensively with plano-convex bricks. It displayed the socio-economic dynamics at Kish during the ED III period. No characteristic linking the building to a religious construct. Instead, the Plano-convex building is recognized as a public building associated with the economical production of beer, textile and oil. The PCB might have also housed the administrative center powered by the elites. First recognized by Margueron, scholars have divided the building into four main sectors based on the architectural layout:
 * Sector A: Production area.
 * Sector B: Inconclusive but arguably an administration area.
 * Sector C: Unknown but exhibit a high degree of segregation.
 * Sector D: Private, domestic area for housing activities.

Governorship of Kish (c. 2570 – c. 2550 BC)
Two rulers (neither appear on the SKL) are known to have ruled from Kish in between its first and second dynasties: Uhub ((r. undefined – undefined)) and Mesilim ((r. undefined – undefined)).

Predynastic Ur (c. 2550 BC)
Mesilim may have enjoyed suzerainty over Ur and Adab. He is also mentioned in some of the earliest monuments as arbitrating a border dispute between Lagash and Umma.

Second dynasty of Kish (c. 2550 – c. 2530 BC)
The SKL names another eight kings for this dynasty: Susuda, Dadasig, Mamagal, Kalbum, Tuge, Mennuna, Enbi-Ishtar, and Lugalngu. Next to nothing is known about the aforementioned eight.

Third dynasty of Kish (c. 2411 BC)
The third dynasty of Kish is unique in that it is represented by a woman named Kubaba ((r. undefined – undefined)). The SKL adds that she had been a tavern-keeper before overthrowing the hegemony of Mari and becoming monarch. According to the Weidner Chronicle: the god Marduk handed over the kingship to Kubaba of Kish during the reign of Puzur-Nirah of Akshak; although, according to the SKL: the Akshak dynasty succeeded the third of Kish. Although its military and economic power was diminished, Kish retained a strong political and symbolic significance. Just as with Nippur to the south, control of Kish was a prime element in legitimizing dominance over the north of Mesopotamia (Assyria and/or Subartu).

Kubaba's dynasty is sometimes said to include her son Puzur-Suen ((r. undefined – undefined)) and grandson Ur-Zababa ((r. undefined – undefined)). The SKL ascribes a 100-year-long reign for the matriarch, 25 for her son, and (varyingly) 4, 6, or even up to 400 years to her grandson. Altogether they ruled for 131 years.

Sargon of Akkad came from an area near Kish called Azupiranu. He would later declare himself the king of Kish, as an attempt to signify his connection to the religiously important area. Because of the city's symbolic value, strong rulers later claimed the traditional title "king of Kish", even if they were from Akkad, Ur, Assyria, Isin, Larsa, or Babylon. Kubaba was later deified as the goddess Kheba.

Fourth dynasty of Kish (c. 2391 – c. 2350 BC)
The kings of the fourth dynasty of Kish are believed to have (r. c. 2334 – c. 2254). Some versions of the SKL lists 6, 7, or 8 kings (including the son and grandson of Kubaba from the third dynasty). Beside the aforementioned two related to the third dynasty, there is: Zimudar, Usiwater, Eshtar-muti, Ishme-Shamash, Shu-ilishu, Nanniya. Zimudar and his successors seem to have been vassals for Sargon of Akkad, and there is no evidence that they ever exercised hegemony in Sumer.

Kingdom of Kazallu (c. 1923 – c. 1920 BC)
After the fall of the Akkadian Empire, Kish became the capital of a small independent kingdom. One king, named Ashduniarim, ruled around the same time as Lipit-Ishtar of Isin.

Kingdom of Kutha (c. 1910 – c. 1898 BC)
By the early part of the First Dynasty of Babylon, during the reigns of Sumu-abum and Sumu-la-El, Kish appears to have come under the rule of another city-state, possibly Kutha.

Kingdom of Marad (c. 1898 – c. 1888 BC)
Iawium, king of Kish around this time, ruled as a vassal of kings named Halium and Manana.

First dynasty of Babylon (c. 1847 – c. 1595 BC)
Sumu-la-El conquered Kish and, later, subjugated Halium and Manana, bringing their territories into the expanding Babylonian Empire. The First Dynasty kings Hammurabi and Samsu-iluna undertook construction at Kish, with the former restoring the city's ziggurat and the latter building a wall around Kish. By this time, the eastern settlement at Hursagkalama had become viewed as a distinct city, and it was probably not included in the walled area.

Tell al-Uhaymir
Because of its close proximity to Babylon the site was visited by a number of explorers and travelers in the 19th century, some involving excavation, most notably by the foreman of Hormuzd Rassam who dug there with a crew of 20 men for a number of months. None of this early work was published. A French archaeological team under Henri de Genouillac excavated at Tell al-Uhaymir between 1912 and 1914, finding some 1,400 Old Babylonian tablets which were distributed to the Istanbul Archaeology Museum and the Louvre. Later, a joint Field Museum and University of Oxford team under Stephen Langdon excavated from 1923 to 1933, with the recovered materials split between Chicago and the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. The actual excavations at Tell al-Uhaymir were led initially by E. MacKay and later by L. C. Watelin. Work on the faunal and flora remains was conducted by Henry Field. More recently, a Japanese team from the Kokushikan University led by Ken Matsumoto excavated at Tell al-Uhaymir in 1988, 2000, and 2001. The final season lasted only one week.

Mound W
Mound W is where a number of Neo-Assyrian tablets were discovered. After irregularly excavated tablets began appearing at the beginning of the twentieth century, François Thureau-Dangin identified the site as being Kish. Those tablets ended up in a variety of museums.

Neo-Babylonian temple complex at Tell Ingharra
As for the temple complex, the findings of the temple had determined that the mound was part of the city of Hursagkalama. It was used as an active religious centre until after 482 BC. They also had identified the builder as Nabonidus or Nebuchadnezzar II based on the bricks with inscriptions and barrel cylinder fragments reported in the temple.

Hellenistic period (c. 330 – c. 238 BC)
Kish continued to be occupied until the Hellenistic period.

Parthian period (c. 238 BC – AD c. 116)
After the Achaemenid period, Kish completely disappears from the historical record; however, archaeological evidence indicates that the town remained in existence for a long time thereafter. Although the site at Tell al-Uhaymir was mostly abandoned, Tell Ingharra was revived during the Parthian period, growing into a sizeable town with a large mud-brick fortress.

Tell el-Bender
In the Chicago expedition to Kish in 1923-1933, another section included Tell el-Bender (where Parthian material is held).

Sassanian period (AD c. 226 – c. 637)
During the Sasanian period, the site of the old city was completely abandoned in favor of a string of connected settlements spread out along both sides of the Shatt en-Nil canal.

Tell H
Tell H is identified roughly as "The Sasanian Settlement". In the 1923-1933 Expedition, Tell H became the focus of its final three seasons (1930-1933). Due to personal reasons of the excavators, the Kish material in this section remained selective, mainly yielding Sasanian pottery, coins, incantation bowls and so on. The dating of this section crossed a range of periods, with layer upon layer built on the site. Evidence shows that in the Early Dynastic III Period, there once even existed a twin city. Therefore, the city occupies a relatively unsettled presence in chronology. But from the excavation, eight buildings were identified as from the Sasanian period, thus making this place primarily identified as the Sasanian Settlement. Researchers suspect that some of the buildings might function together as a complex serving different purposes, including royal residence, storage, and administration.

The most prominent finding is the stucco decoration in the first two buildings, while the 1923-1933 team also figured out the floor plan and architectural structure of others. It was partly through these stucco decorations that researchers identified the royal resident to be Bahram V (420-438 AD)—Sasanian kings had their distinctive crowns separately, and the unique crown pattern on stucco served as evidence to support this argument. In Kish, which once functioned as a transfer station between Ctesiphon and Hira, Bahram V built palaces for summer entertainment, which explains why one of the buildings has a huge water tank in the middle, probably functioning to cool down the court in summers. Around Bahram V’s palaces, a group of Sasanian people also took residence and developed a system of settlement and commercial activities.

Abbasid period (AD c. 750 – c. 1258)
This last incarnation of Kish prospered under Sasanian and then Islamic rule, before finally abandoned during the later years of the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258).