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Puebloans

Fact: The Pueblo peoples used ritual 'prayer sticks', which were colorfully decorated with beads, fur, and feathers. These prayer sticks (or 'talking sticks') were similar to those used by other Native American nations.

MLA Citation: Geib, Phil R., et al. “CONTINUITY AND CHANGE IN PUEBLOAN RITUAL PRACTICE: 3,800 YEARS OF SHRINE USE IN THE NORTH AMERICAN SOUTHWEST.” American Antiquity, vol. 82, no. 2, Cambridge University Press, 2017, pp. 353–73, doi:10.1017/aaq.2016.35.

DOI: 10.1017/aaq.2016.35

Quote: Atlatl darts are analogous with prayer sticks, the latter representing a derived form of this offering with arrows as an intermediary form.

Phase Three:

Liebmann, Matthew, et al. “Pueblo Settlement, Architecture, and Social Change in the Pueblo Revolt Era, A.D. 1680 to 1696.” Journal of Field Archaeology, vol. 30, no. 1, Routledge, 2005, pp. 45–60, doi:10.1179/009346905791072459.

This scholarly article mentions that the Pueblo Indians united with Navajo and Apache allies to drive the Spaniards out. This adds a diversity detail because it was not only the Pueblo natives versus the Spaniards. It was the Navajo, Apache, and Pueblo’s that drove the Spaniards away.

Geib, Phil R., et al. “CONTINUITY AND CHANGE IN PUEBLOAN RITUAL PRACTICE: 3,800 YEARS OF SHRINE USE IN THE NORTH AMERICAN SOUTHWEST.” American Antiquity, vol. 82, no. 2, Cambridge University Press, 2017, pp. 353–73, doi:10.1017/aaq.2016.35.

This scholarly article makes note of similarities between the Pueblo people’s prayer sticks and another tribe’s darts. This adds a diversity element because it demonstrates the tribe influence on another. The article also provides details on the intermediary form that was derived from the darts and came before prayer sticks.

Phase Four:

Fact 1 Paragraph: "After 140 years of Spanish exploration and colonization, the Pueblo Indians of the American Southwest united with Navajo and Apache allies in an armed revolt to drive the Spaniards from their lands (fig. i). In August of 1680, Pueblo warriors executed Franciscan priests and Hispanic settlers, burned missions and haciendas, and laid siege to the Spanish capital of Santa Fe. The European settlers who survived this onslaught fled to El Paso del Norte (present-day Ciudad Juarez, Mexico), where they temporarily reestablished their colony. The Pueblo Revolt of 1680 was thus the earliest and most successful native insurrection along the northern Spanish frontier, and for a period of 12 years the Pueblo Indians were free of colonial domination."

Fact 1 Summary: After 140 years of Spanish exploration and colonization, the Pueblo Indians united with Navajo and Apache allies in what is considered the most successful native revolt, which drove out colonials for 12 years.

Fact 2 Paragraph: "Radiocarbon dates on artifacts from a Puebloan shrine in New Mexico reveal a persistence in ritual practice for some 3,800 years. The dates indicate that the shrine had become an important location for ceremonial observances related to warfare by almost 2000 cal. B.C., coinciding with the time when food production was first practiced in the Southwest. The shrine exhibits continuity of ritual behavior, something that Puebloans may find unsurprising, but also changes in the artifacts deposited that indicate new technology, transformations of belief, and perhaps shifting cultural boundaries. After briefly describing this shrine, we discuss some of the artifacts that were deposited there, in particular atlatl darts and flat curved sticks with longitudinal facial grooves. We argue that both were used in ritual fights and then deposited in the shrine as offerings, establishing a behavioral tradition that set the precedent for ethnographic recognition of the site as an important war shrine. Atlatl darts are analogous with prayer sticks, the latter representing a derived form of this offering with arrows as an intermediary form. Flat curved sticks were used for defense against atlatl darts in duels that enhanced warrior status."

Fact 2 Summary: A Puebloan war shrine in New Mexico indicates transformations of belief and shifting cultural boundaries through atlatl darts, which were used in ritual fights are are analogous with prayer sticks, to enhance warrior status.

Article Paragraphs:

Spanish colonial policies in the 1500s regarding the humane treatment of native citizens were often ignored on the northern frontier. With the establishment of the first permanent colonial settlement in 1598, the Pueblos were forced to provide tribute to the colonists in the form of labor, ground corn, and textiles. Encomiendas were soon established by colonists along the Rio Grande, restricting Pueblo access to fertile farmlands and water supplies and placing a heavy burden upon Pueblo labor. Especially egregious to the Pueblo was the assault on their traditional religion. Franciscan priests established theocracies in many of the Pueblo villages. In 1608, when it looked as though Spain might abandon the province, the Franciscans baptized seven thousand Pueblos to try to convince the Crown otherwise. Although the Franciscans initially tolerated manifestations of the old religion as long as the Puebloans attended mass and maintained a public veneer of Catholicism, Fray Alonso de Posada (in New Mexico 1656–1665) outlawed Kachina dances by the Pueblo people and ordered the missionaries to seize and burn their masks, prayer sticks, and effigies. A Puebloan war shrine in New Mexico indicates transformations of belief and shifting cultural boundaries through atlatl darts, which were used in ritual fights are are analogous with prayer sticks, to enhance warrior status. The Franciscan missionaries also forbade the use of entheogenic substances in the traditional religious ceremonies of the Pueblo. Several Spanish officials, such as Nicolas de Aguilar, who attempted to curb the power of the Franciscans were charged with heresy and tried before the Inquisition.[further explanation needed]

Following his release, Popé, along with a number of other Pueblo leaders (see list below), planned and orchestrated the Pueblo Revolt. Popé took up residence in Taos Pueblo far from the capital of Santa Fe and spent the next five years seeking support for a revolt among the 46 Pueblo towns. He gained the support of the Northern Tiwa, Tewa, Towa, Tano, and Keres-speaking Pueblos of the Rio Grande Valley. The Pecos Pueblo, 50 miles east of the Rio Grande pledged its participation in the revolt as did the Zuni and Hopi, 120 and 200 miles respectively west of the Rio Grande. The Pueblos not joining the revolt were the four southern Tiwa (Tiguex) towns near Santa Fe and the Piro Pueblos south of the principal Pueblo population centers near the present day city of Socorro. The southern Tiwa and the Piro were more thoroughly integrated into Spanish culture than the other groups. The Spanish population of about 2,400, including mixed-blood mestizos, and native servants and retainers, was scattered thinly throughout the region. Santa Fe was the only place that approximated being a town. The Spanish could only muster 170 men with arms. The Pueblos joining the revolt probably had 2,000 or more adult men capable of using native weapons such as the bow and arrow. After 140 years of Spanish exploration and colonization, the Pueblo Indians united with Navajo and Apache allies in what is considered the most successful native revolt, which drove out colonials for 12 years.