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Singapore
Coping with Culture Shock

What is culture shock?

Culture shock is caused by the stress of being in a new culture. It is a normal part of adjusting to new foods, customs, language, people and activities.

Symptoms of culture shock are:

Unwarranted criticism of the culture and people

Constant complaints about the climate

Utopian ideas concerning one's previous culture

Continuous concern about the purity of water and food

Fear of touching local people

Refusal to learn the language

Preoccupation about being robbed or cheated

Pressing desire to talk with people who "really make sense."

Preoccupation with returning home

Irritability

Overly concerned with health

Loneliness

Hopelessness

Distrust of hosts

Withdrawal of people

Lowered work performances

How can you cope with culture shock when in Singapore?

The most effective way to combat culture shock is to step back from a given event that has bothered you, assess it, and search for an appropriate explanation and response. Try the following:

Are you misunderstanding the host people's treatment of you? Where can you find more information about this aspect of the culture? Behavior which seems rude to you, may not be intended as rude. Polite customs are different for each culture. When situations seem senseless, remember the hosts may be following social rules unknown to you. Ask questions about social customs. And plan how you may want to act to this similar situations in future.

If you are still bothered by a situation, find ways to minimize the irritation. Is the situation necessary? If not, you may be able to avoid or minimize involvement.

What do you miss the most which was enjoyable in your home country? Look for ways to meet these desires or replace these with something new. For example, if you miss your favourite American steak, go to an American steakhouse or head to the supermarkets to cook some yourself. In Singapore, expatriates are fortunate as we are very cosmopolitan, it is very easy to find a treat from your own country as Singapore serves up many cultures' food.

Develop friendships with both Singaporeans and people from your own country. At times the friendships with culturally different people will seem very taxing. That is why it is important to have people from your own country or area to spend time with also. This helps you re-energize for interacting cross-culturally. However, isolation in either group alone causes more adjustment problems.

Talk to people from your country about your stresses and ask how they have dealt with the same situation.

Continue improving your language proficiency (watch TV, listen to the radio, read books in English).

Have a sense of humor. Allow yourself to see the humor in misunderstandings or embarrassments. Laughter heals. Singaporeans are generally very easy-going and helpful.

Exercise and a nutritional diet also help to reduce stress.

Remember that some culture shock is a normal part of adjusting to a new country. However, the more severe symptoms mean the adjustment process is blocked and you need help to move into a more comfortable stage.

Find a place where you feel comfortable and spend time there. In Singapore, you can head down to the East Coast beach.

Have certain times during the week or day when you don't think about your research or problems, just have fun.

When problems seem to be building up, mentally step back from them. Divide your problems up, understand each one, and work on them one at a time.

If headaches and stomach aches become a constant problem, realize that they may be a sign of emotional problems, not just physical problems. If medical doctors and medication do not work, it might be time to see a counsellor.

It is important to maintain regular life patterns, for example eating meals at regular times and sleeping and exercising regularly.

When you begin to feel depressed, ask yourself: "What did I expect? Why? Was my expectation reasonable?" Sometimes, you may be setting your expectations from people too high, so lowering your expectations and try to understand the other party's intentions will also help reduce your stress level.

Learn the culture and customs of Singapore. Singapore is very multi-ethnic and cultural based, expatriates are normally treated as a part of the family.

Disregard your old assumptions and expectations. Be open to learning new things. Explore new ways of living and compare these to your own. Become more aware of both your values and attitudes and those of your host country.

Adjusting to a new culture requires a good amount of re-examination of your own values and outlook. Try to do that as you live in the new culture.

Throughout the period of cultural adaptation, take good care of yourself. Read a book or rent a video in your home language, take a short trip if possible, exercise and get plenty of rest, write a letter or telephone home, eat good food, and do things you enjoy with friends. Take special notice of things you enjoy about living in the host culture.

Although it can be disconcerting and a little scary, the "shock" gradually eases as you begin to understand the new culture. It is useful to realize that often the reactions and perceptions of others toward you--and you toward them-- are not personal evaluations but are based on a clash of cultural values. The more skilled you become in recognizing how and when cultural values and behaviors are likely to come in conflict, the easier it becomes to make adjustments that can help you avoid serious difficulties.

Top

 Cost of Living

The job seeker can either live rather cheaply in Singapore, or can live a life of luxury. Salaries are competitive, and numerous benefits (such as recreation facilities and bonuses) make working here a rewarding experience.

Food is relatively cheap in Singapore. Food courts (which are often air-conditioned) or what are commonly called hawker centers are recommended for an expensive, hearty meal. However, restaurant prices are higher. Take a look at our Eating in Singapore.

Those on expatriate compensation packages may also receive additional benefits, such as transportation/car allowances, housing, childcare, payment of school fees, entertainment allowances, and work-related benefits. According to Mercer survey (1 June 2003) on the cost of living, Singapore is easier to stretch the dollar than that of Hong Kong and Beijing, making it cheaper for expatriates to live in. Singapore fell eight places from 24th to the 32nd position, in a survey of cost of living of 144 cities. The survey measures the comparative cost of more than 200 items in each city, including housing, food, clothing and household goods, transport and entertainment.

Cost of utilities - Electricity, Water and Gas Electricity Latest electricity cost (tariffs) - 16.35¢ per kWh House Type Average - kWh HDB 1-room 104 HDB 2-room 166 HDB 3-room 279 HDB 4-room 397 HDB 5-room 487 HDB Executive 493 Apartment 804 Landed Property 1,439

Water Latest water cost (tariffs):

1 to 40 cubic metres: S$1.52 per cubic metres Above 40 cubic metres: S$2.03 per cubic metres

House Type Average - cubic metres HDB 1-room 8.8 HDB 2-room 11.7 HDB 3-room 15.6 HDB 4-room 19.6 HDB 5-room 19.6 HDB Executive 17.7 Apartment 18.8 Landed Property 38.3

Gas Latest gas cost (tariffs) - 15.23¢ per unit

House Type Average in units HDB 1-room 60 HDB 2-room 73 HDB 3-room 90 HDB 4-room 101 HDB 5-room 100 HDB Executive 102 Apartment 84 Landed Property 163

Top

 Housing in Singapore

Buying or renting a home?

The cost of housing has decreased over the past few years, it is now possible to own a home in Singapore. Housing costs vary depending on the location and there are many resources to help in your search. Our Singapore Online Property Classifieds has an immense amount of information to expedite your search. Whether you are buying or renting a house, here are some things to consider:

Decide beforehand on a few likely locations that you'd like to live in. Take into account things like the distance to work places, schools, transportation and places that you visit frequently with your family's lifestyle in mind. There is also a House Hunt Guide to help you pick the ideal location and housing in which you would like to relocate to.

Size - How large a home do you need? Have you thought about the next couple of years - are members of your family likely to move in or out? How many bedrooms do you need? Where do you and your family spend most time?

Facilities - Would you like the advantage of a swimming pool, tennis courts and other condominium type facilities? Or, would you prefer to join a recreation club and enjoy a wider variety of leisure?

Amenities - Are shops, banks, and markets within a short distance away?

Read our House Hunt Guide on choosing the right home in the right location at the right price.

Top

 Schools & Childcare

Schools in the area

When a family moves to a new location, the biggest factor in deciding on a neighbourhood could be the school district. Information on the list of international schools will help you decide better. Our comprehensive list of International Schools, education system in Singapore and procedure to admit into a local school can be found at International Schools, Education.

Childcare

Singapore alone has more than 370 childcare centres, and the best way to select your children's childcare centre would be based on where you reside. Take a look at our list of Pre-schools at International Schools, Education - Pre-Schools.

Top

 Taxes & Taxable income

Singapore has a well-regulated tax system, and personal income tax rates are generally lower than in other developed countries. The Inland Revenue Authority of Singapore (IRAS) assesses, collects and enforces various taxes, duties and levies. All expatriates working in Singapore are liable to pay Singapore income tax. The tax year, and corresponding tax calculations, is based on a calendar year, starting midnight on 1 January and ending midnight on 31 December.

Residency status Under the Singapore tax laws, income tax is chargeable on the income of any person, which is statutorily extended to include individuals, a company and a body of persons. A company means any company incorporated or registered under any law in force in Singapore or elsewhere, while a body of persons means any body politic, corporate or collegiate, any corporation sole and any fraternity, fellowship or society of persons. Income tax is your contribution to government spending.

Other sources of tax revenue include Property Tax, Goods and Services Tax, Stamp Duties, Estate Duties, Private Lotteries and Duties on Betting.

Residents taxes

Residents are taxed on income derived from or accrued in Singapore, and on income derived from outside Singapore and received in Singapore.

Non-residents are taxed only on income derived from or accrued in Singapore. They do not have to pay taxes on foreign income received in Singapore. Also, they are exempted from income tax if they work in Singapore for 60 days or less in a calendar year.

Non-residents taxes

Residents are taxed at gradual rates ranging from 2 per cent to 28 per cent, after the appropriate reliefs have been deducted.

Non-residents are taxed at either a flat rate of 15 per cent on employment income, without personal reliefs, or the residents' graduated rate, whichever is higher. In addition, non-residents are taxed a flat rate of 27 per cent on non-employment income derived from Singapore.

Whether you are taxed at the resident or nonresident rate can significantly affect your taxes. Details for how residency is determined in a tax year, as well as the current tax rate, can be found on IRAS homepage.

What income is taxable?

Profits from a business, profession or vocation

Earnings from full or part-time work

Dividends from shares in a company

Interest · pension, charge or annuity

Rent, royalties and other profits arising from property

Singapore has tax relief agreements with 34 countries to avoid double taxation. They are:

Assessment of tax Singapore taxes are not withheld from your paycheck, but instead billed to you after the tax year. Tax returns are based on the calendar year and must usually be filed by 15 April. All tax must be paid within one month of the notice of assessment, which usually comes in the later part of the year. When you leave Singapore, you will be required to pay all taxes on all income earned up to the end of your contract. For example, if you are leaving in July of a particular year, you will be responsible for paying all your taxes including taxes on that year's earnings - you will not be billed sometime in spring the following year for this.

For more information, go to Career in Singapore - Income Tax or please contact:

Taxpayer Services Centre Inland Revenue Authority of Singapore 1st Storey, Revenue House, 55 Newton Road, Singapore 307987 Website: www.iras.gov.sg

Top

Transportation

A car may not necessary in Singapore as the mode of public transport is very convenient and owning a car in Singapore is a major undertaking as compared to the UK and America. The widely most used mode of public transportation would be the trains (also known as MRT), buses and taxis.

However, if you are planning to purchase a car in Singapore, second hand cars (used cars) are also widely available at car dealers. An 'old' car (which is a car 'more than ten years') is therefore in the same category. True, there is considerable depreciation in the actual value of the car but there are also the pitfalls of potential "wrecks" and write-offs being sold off as supposedly solid pieces of kit. However, you could purchase a car that is more than ten years old but finding one with a warranty is difficult and costly. This is because anyone buying a car in Singapore has to pay for a ten year Certificate of Entitlement (COE) to obtain the car in the first place and then pay the same exorbitant sum (In current times ranging at S$30-S$40k) once ten years is up.

For car insurance, you may wish to ask friends which insurer they use and perhaps that could also be an option to picking cheaper car insurance in the market. NTUC income covers 70% of the car insurance market in Singapore. You may want to check them out.

Read our Singapore Travel Guide for in depth information on personal and public transport.

India
Economy of India From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Economy of India Currency 1 Indian Rupee (INR) (₨) = 100 Paise Fiscal year April 1–March 31 Trade organisations WTO, SAFTA Statistics GDP $1.209 trillion (2008 est.)[1] GDP growth 6.7% (2009)[2] GDP per capita $1016 [3] GDP by sector agriculture: 17.2%, industry: 29.1%, services: 53.7% (2008 est.) Inflation (CPI) 7.8% (CPI) (2008) Population below poverty line 22% (2008)[4] Labour force 523.5 million (2008 est.) Labour force by occupation agriculture: 60%, industry: 12%, services: 28% (2003) Unemployment 6.8% (2008 est.) Main industries textiles, chemicals, food processing, steel, transportation equipment, cement, mining, petroleum, machinery, software External Exports $175.7 billion f.o.b (2008 est.) Export goods petroleum products, textile goods, gems and jewelry, engineering goods, chemicals, leather manufactures Main export partners US 15%, the People's Republic of China 8.7%, UAE 8.7%, UK 4.4% (2007) Imports $287.5 billion f.o.b. (2008 est.) Import goods crude oil, machinery, gems, fertilizer, chemicals Main import partners People's Republic of China 10.6%, US 7.8%, Germany 4.4%, Singapore 4.4% Public finances Public Debt $163.8 billion (2008) Revenues $153.5 billion (2008 est.) Expenses $205.3 billion (2008 est.) Main data source: CIA World Fact Book All values, unless otherwise stated, are in US dollars This box: view • talk The economy of India is the twelfth largest economy in the world by market exchange rates[5] and the fourth largest by purchasing power parity (PPP) basis.[6]

India was under socialist-based policies for an entire generation from the 1950s until the 1980s. The economy was characterised by extensive regulation, protectionism, and public ownership, leading to pervasive corruption and slow growth.[7][8][9][10] Since 1991, continuing economic liberalisation has moved the economy towards a market-based system.[8][9]

India's large service industry accounts for 54% of the country's GDP while the industrial and agricultural sector contribute 29% and 17% respectively. Agriculture is the predominant occupation in India, accounting for about 60% of employment. The service sector makes up a further 28%, and industrial sector around 12%.[11] The labor force totals half a billion workers. Major agricultural products include rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, potatoes, cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats, poultry and fish.[12] Major industries include textiles, chemicals, food processing, steel, transportation equipment, cement, mining, petroleum, machinery, information technology enabled services and software.[12]

India's per capita income (nominal) is $1016, ranked 142th in the world,[13] while its per capita (PPP) of US$2,762 is ranked 129th.[14][15] Previously a closed economy, India's trade has grown fast.[8] India currently accounts for 1.5% of World trade as of 2007 according to the WTO. According to the World Trade Statistics of the WTO in 2006, India's total merchandise trade (counting exports and imports) was valued at $294 billion in 2006 and India's services trade inclusive of export and import was $143 billion. Thus, India's global economic engagement in 2006 covering both merchandise and services trade was of the order of $437 billion, up by a record 72% from a level of $253 billion in 2004. India's trade has reached a still relatively moderate share 24% of GDP in 2006, up from 6% in 1985.[8]

Despite robust economic growth, India continues to face several major problems. The recent economic development has widened the economic inequality across the country.[16] Despite sustained high economic growth rate, approximately 80% of its population lives on less than $2 a day (Nominal), more than double the same poverty rate in China.[17] Even though the arrival of Green Revolution brought end to famines in India,[18] 40% of children under the age of three are underweight and a third of all men and women suffer from chronic energy deficiency.[19]

India From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search "Bharat" and "ROI" redirect here. For other uses, see Bharat (disambiguation) and ROI (disambiguation). This article is about Republic of India. For other uses, see India (disambiguation). Republic of India भारत गणराज्य* Bhārat Gaṇarājya Flag National Emblem Motto: "Satyameva Jayate" (Sanskrit) सत्यमेव जयते (Devanāgarī) "Truth Alone Triumphs"[1] Anthem: Jana Gana Mana Thou art the ruler of the minds of all people[2] National Song[4] Vande Mataram I bow to thee, Mother[3] Capital New Delhi ‡) 28°34′N 77°12′E﻿ / ﻿28.567°N 77.2°E﻿ / 28.567; 77.2 Largest city Mumbai Official languages Hindi, English[show] Hindi in the Devanagari script is the official language of the Union[5] and English the "subsidiary official language".[6] Constitutionally recognised languages 8th Schedule:[show] Assamese Bengali Bodo Dogri Gujarati Hindi Kannada Kashmiri Konkani Maithili Malayalam Manipuri Marathi Nepali Oriya Punjabi Sanskrit Santali Sindhi Tamil Telugu Urdu[7] Demonym Indian Government Federal republic Parliamentary democracy[8] -  President Pratibha Patil  -  Prime Minister Manmohan Singh  -  Chief Justice K. G. Balakrishnan Legislature Sansad  -  Upper House Rajya Sabha  -  Lower House Lok Sabha Independence from United Kingdom   -  Declared 15 August 1947   -  Republic 26 January 1950  Area  -  Total 3,287,240‡ km2 (7th) 1,269,210 sq mi   -  Water (%) 9.56 Population  -  2009 estimate 1,198,003,000[9] (2nd) - 2001 census 1,028,610,328[10] - Density 364.4/km2 (32nd) 943.9/sq mi GDP (PPP) 2008 estimate - Total $3.288 trillion[11] - Per capita $2,762[11] GDP (nominal) 2008 estimate - Total $1.209 trillion[11] - Per capita $1,016[11] Gini (2004) 36.8[12] HDI (2008) 0.609 (medium) (132) Currency Indian rupee (₨) (INR) Time zone IST (UTC+5:30) - Summer (DST) not observed (UTC+5:30) Drives on the left Internet TLD .in Calling code 91 Non-numbered Footnotes:[show] ‡ This is the figure as per the United Nations though the Indian government lists the total area as 3,287,260 square kilometres.[13] India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: भारत गणराज्य Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the east, India has a coastline of 7,517 kilometres (4,700 mi).[14] It is bordered by Pakistan to the west;[15] People's Republic of China (PRC), Nepal, and Bhutan to the north; and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and Indonesia in the Indian Ocean.
 * Bharat Ganarajya, that is, the Republic of India in Hindi,[8] written in the Devanāgarī script. See also other official names

Home to the Indus Valley Civilisation and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history.[16] Four major religions, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism originated there, while Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam arrived in the first millennium CE and shaped the region's diverse culture. Gradually annexed by the British East India Company from the early eighteenth century and colonised by the United Kingdom from the mid-nineteenth century, India became an independent nation in 1947 after a struggle for independence that was marked by widespread nonviolent resistance.[17]

India is a republic consisting of 28 states and seven union territories with a parliamentary system of democracy. It has the world's twelfth largest economy at market exchange rates and the fourth largest in purchasing power. Economic reforms since 1991 have transformed it into one of the fastest growing economies;[18] however, it still suffers from high levels of poverty,[19] illiteracy, disease, and malnutrition. A pluralistic, multilingual, and multiethnic society, India is also home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats.

Contents [hide] 1 Etymology 2 History 3 Government 3.1 Administrative divisions 4 Politics 5 Foreign relations and military 6 Geography 7 Flora and fauna 8 Economy 9 Demographics 10 Culture 10.1 Sports 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 14 External links

Etymology Main article: Names of India The name India (pronounced /ˈɪndiə/) is derived from Indus, which is derived from the Old Persian word Hindu, from Sanskrit Sindhu, the historic local appellation for the Indus River.[20] The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi (Ινδοί), the people of the Indus.[21] The Constitution of India and common usage in various Indian languages also recognise Bharat (pronounced [bʱaːrət] ( listen)) as an official name of equal status.[22] The name Bharat is derived from the name of the legendary king Bharata in Hindu Mythology. Hindustan ( /hin̪d̪ust̪ɑːn/ ), which is the Persian word for “Land of the Hindus” and historically referred to northern India, is also occasionally used as a synonym for all of India.[23]

History Main articles: History of India and History of the Republic of India Stone Age rock shelters with paintings at the Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh are the earliest known traces of human life in India. The first known permanent settlements appeared over 9,000 years ago and gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation,[24] dating back to 3300 BCE in western India. It was followed by the Vedic period, which laid the foundations of Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early Indian society, and ended in the 500s BCE. From around 550 BCE, many independent kingdoms and republics known as the Mahajanapadas were established across the country.[25]

Paintings at the Ajanta Caves in Aurangabad, Maharashtra, sixth centuryIn the third century BCE, most of South Asia was united into the Maurya Empire by Chandragupta Maurya and flourished under Ashoka the Great.[26] From the third century CE, the Gupta dynasty oversaw the period referred to as ancient "India's Golden Age."[27][28] Empires in Southern India included those of the Chalukyas, the Cholas and the Vijayanagara Empire. Science, technology, engineering, art, logic, language, literature, mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosophy flourished under the patronage of these kings.

Following invasions from Central Asia between the 10th and 12th centuries, much of North India came under the rule of the Delhi Sultanate and later the Mughal Empire. Under the rule of Akbar the Great, India enjoyed much cultural and economic progress as well as religious harmony.[29][30] Mughal emperors gradually expanded their empires to cover large parts of the subcontinent. However, in North-Eastern India, the dominant power was the Ahom kingdom of Assam, among the few kingdoms to have resisted Mughal subjugation. The first major threat to Mughal imperial power came from a Hindu Rajput king Maha Rana Pratap of Mewar in the 14th century and later from a Hindu state known as the Maratha confederacy, that dominated much of India in the mid-18th century.[31]

From the 16th century, European powers such as Portugal, the Netherlands, France, and the United Kingdom established trading posts and later took advantage of internal conflicts to establish colonies in the country. By 1856, most of India was under the control of the British East India Company.[32] A year later, a nationwide insurrection of rebelling military units and kingdoms, known as India's First War of Independence or the Sepoy Mutiny, seriously challenged the Company's control but eventually failed. As a result of the instability, India was brought under the direct rule of the British Crown.

Mahatma Gandhi (right) with Jawaharlal Nehru, 1937. Nehru would go on to become India's first prime minister in 1947.In the 20th century, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress and other political organisations. Indian leader Mahatma Gandhi led millions of people in national campaigns of non-violent civil disobedience.[17] On 15 August 1947, India gained independence from British rule, but at the same time Muslim-majority areas were partitioned to form a separate state of Pakistan.[33] On 26 January 1950, India became a republic and a new constitution came into effect.[34]

Since independence, India has faced challenges from religious violence, casteism, naxalism, terrorism and regional separatist insurgencies, especially in Jammu and Kashmir and Northeast India. Since the 1990s terrorist attacks have affected many Indian cities. India has unresolved territorial disputes with P. R. China, which in 1962 escalated into the Sino-Indian War; and with Pakistan, which resulted in wars in 1947, 1965, 1971 and 1999. India is a founding member of the United Nations (as British India) and the Non-Aligned Movement. In 1974, India conducted an underground nuclear test[35] and five more tests in 1998, making India a nuclear state.[35] Beginning in 1991, significant economic reforms[36] have transformed India into one of the fastest-growing economies in the world, increasing its global clout.[18]

Government Main article: Government of India National Symbols of India[37] Flag Tricolour Emblem Sarnath Lion Capital Anthem Jana Gana Mana Song Vande Mataram Animal Royal Bengal Tiger Bird Indian Peafowl Flower Lotus Tree Banyan Fruit Mango Sport Field hockey Calendar Saka The Constitution of India, the longest and the most exhaustive constitution of any independent nation in the world, came into force on 26 January, 1950.[38] The preamble of the constitution defines India as a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic.[39] India has a bicameral parliament operating under a Westminster-style parliamentary system. Its form of government was traditionally described as being 'quasi-federal' with a strong centre and weaker states,[40] but it has grown increasingly federal since the late 1990s as a result of political, economic and social changes.[41]

The President of India is the head of state[42] elected indirectly by an electoral college[43] for a five-year term.[44][45] The Prime Minister is the head of government and exercises most executive powers.[42] Appointed by the President,[46] the Prime Minister is by convention supported by the party or political alliance holding the majority of seats in the lower house of Parliament.[42] The executive branch consists of the President, Vice-President, and the Council of Ministers (the Cabinet being its executive committee) headed by the Prime Minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of either house of parliament. In the Indian parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature, with the Prime Minister and his Council being directly responsible to the lower house of the Parliament.[47]

The Legislature of India is the bicameral Parliament, which consists of the upper house called the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the lower house called the Lok Sabha (House of People).[48] The Rajya Sabha, a permanent body, has 245 members serving staggered six year terms.[49] Most are elected indirectly by the state and territorial legislatures in proportion to the state's population.[49] 543 of the Lok Sabha's 545 members are directly elected by popular vote to represent individual constituencies for five year terms.[49] The other two members are nominated by the President from the Anglo-Indian community if the President is of the opinion that the community is not adequately represented.[49]

India has a unitary three-tier judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of India, twenty-one High Courts, and a large number of trial courts.[50] The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction over cases involving fundamental rights and over disputes between states and the Centre, and appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts.[51] It is judicially independent,[50] and has the power to declare the law and to strike down Union or State laws which contravene the Constitution.[52] The role as the ultimate interpreter of the Constitution is one of the most important functions of the Supreme Court.[53]

Administrative divisions Main article: Administrative divisions of India India consists of twenty-eight states and seven Union Territories.[54] All states, and the two union territories of Puducherry and the National Capital Territory of Delhi, have elected legislatures and governments patterned on the Westminster model. The other five union territories are directly ruled by the Centre through appointed administrators. In 1956, under the States Reorganisation Act, states were formed on a linguistic basis.[55] Since then, this structure has remained largely unchanged. Each state or union territory is further divided into administrative districts.[56] The districts in turn are further divided into tehsils and eventually into villages.

Administrative divisions of India, including 28 states and 7 union territories.States:

Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Assam Bihar Chhattisgarh Goa Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir Jharkhand Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Orissa Punjab Rajasthan Sikkim Tamil Nadu Tripura Uttar Pradesh Uttarakhand West Bengal

Union Territories:

Andaman and Nicobar Islands Chandigarh Dadra and Nagar Haveli Daman and Diu Lakshadweep National Capital Territory of Delhi Puducherry

Politics Main article: Politics of India The North Block, in New Delhi, houses key government offices.India is the most populous democracy in the world.[57][58] For most of the years since independence, the federal government has been led by the Indian National Congress (INC).[54] Politics in the states have been dominated by several national parties including the INC, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)) and various regional parties. From 1950 to 1990, barring two brief periods, the INC enjoyed a parliamentary majority. The INC was out of power between 1977 and 1980, when the Janata Party won the election owing to public discontent with the state of emergency declared by the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. In 1989, a Janata Dal-led National Front coalition in alliance with the Left Front coalition won the elections but managed to stay in power for only two years.[59] As the 1991 elections gave no political party a majority, the INC formed a minority government under Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao and was able to complete its five-year term.[60]

The years 1996–1998 were a period of turmoil in the federal government with several short-lived alliances holding sway. The BJP formed a government briefly in 1996, followed by the United Front coalition that excluded both the BJP and the INC. In 1998, the BJP formed the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) with several other parties and became the first non-Congress government to complete a full five-year term.[61] In the 2004 Indian elections, the INC won the largest number of Lok Sabha seats and formed a government with a coalition called the United Progressive Alliance (UPA), supported by various Left-leaning parties and members opposed to the BJP. The UPA again came into power in the 2009 general election; however, the representation of the Left leaning parties within the coalition has significantly reduced.[62] Manmohan Singh became the first prime minister since Jawaharlal Nehru in 1962 to be re-elected after completing a full five-year term.[63]

Foreign relations and military Main articles: Foreign relations of India and Indian Armed Forces The Sukhoi-30 MKI is the Indian Air Force's prime air superiority fighter and an enhanced version of Su-27.[64]Since its independence in 1947, India has maintained cordial relationships with most nations. It took a leading role in the 1950s by advocating the independence of European colonies in Africa and Asia.[65] India was involved in two brief military interventions in neighbouring countries – Indian Peace Keeping Force in Sri Lanka and Operation Cactus in Maldives. India is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations and a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement.[66] After the Sino-Indian War and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, India's relationship with the Soviet Union warmed and continued to remain so until the end of the Cold War. India has fought two wars with Pakistan over the Kashmir dispute. A third war between India and Pakistan in 1971 resulted in the creation of Bangladesh (then East Pakistan).[67] Additional skirmishes have taken place between the two nations over the Siachen Glacier. In 1999, India and Pakistan fought an undeclared war over Kargil.

India and Russia share an extensive economic, defence and technological relationship.[68] Shown here is PM Manmohan Singh with President Dmitry Medvedev at the 34th G8 Summit.In recent years, India has played an influential role in the SAARC, and the WTO.[69] India has provided as many as 55,000 Indian military and police personnel to serve in thirty-five UN peace keeping operations across four continents.[70] Despite criticism and military sanctions, India has consistently refused to sign the CTBT and the NPT, preferring instead to maintain sovereignty over its nuclear program. Recent overtures by the Indian government have strengthened relations with the United States, China and Pakistan. In the economic sphere, India has close relationships with other developing nations in South America, Asia and Africa.

India maintains the third-largest military force in the world, which consists of the Indian Army, Navy, Air Force[34] and auxiliary forces such as the Paramilitary Forces, the Coast Guard, and the Strategic Forces Command. The President of India is the supreme commander of the Indian Armed Forces. India maintains close defence cooperation with Russia, Israel and France, who are the chief suppliers of arms. The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) oversees indigenous development of sophisticated arms and military equipment, including ballistic missiles, fighter aircraft and main battle tanks, to reduce India's dependence on foreign imports. India became a nuclear power in 1974 after conducting an initial nuclear test, Operation Smiling Buddha and further underground testing in 1998. India maintains a "no first use" nuclear policy.[71] On 10 October, 2008 Indo-US civilian nuclear agreement was signed, prior to which India received IAEA and NSG waivers, ending restrictions on nuclear technology commerce with which India became de facto sixth nuclear power in world.[72]

Geography Main article: Geography of India See also: Geological history of India and Climate of India See also: List of countries and outlying territories by total area Topographic map of India.India, the major portion of the Indian subcontinent, sits atop the Indian tectonic plate, a minor plate within the Indo-Australian Plate.[73]

India's defining geological processes commenced seventy-five million years ago, when the Indian subcontinent, then part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, began a northeastwards drift—lasting fifty million years—across the then unformed Indian Ocean.[73] The subcontinent's subsequent collision with the Eurasian Plate and subduction under it, gave rise to the Himalayas, the planet's highest mountains, which now cover India in the north and the north-east.[73] In the former seabed immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast trough, which, having gradually been filled with river-borne sediment,[74] now forms the Indo-Gangetic Plain.[75] To the west of this plain, and cut off from it by the Aravalli Range, lies the Thar Desert.[76] The original Indian plate now survives as peninsular India, the oldest and geologically most stable part of India, and extending as far north as the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in central India. These parallel ranges run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east.[77] To their south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the Deccan Plateau, is flanked on the left and right by the coastal ranges, Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats respectively;[78] the plateau contains the oldest rock formations in India, some over one billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the north of the equator between 6°44' and 35°30' north latitude[79] and 68°7' and 97°25' east longitude.[80]

India's coast is 7,517 kilometres (4,700 mi) long; of this distance, 5,423 kilometres (3,400 mi) belong to peninsular India, and 2,094 kilometres (1,300 mi) to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep Islands.[14] According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland coast consists of the following: 43% sandy beaches, 11% rocky coast including cliffs, and 46% mudflats or marshy coast.[14]

The Himalayas form the mountainous landscape of Northern India. Seen here is Ladakh in Jammu & KashmirMajor Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal.[81] Important tributaries of the Ganges include the Yamuna and the Kosi, whose extremely low gradient causes disastrous floods every year. Major peninsular rivers whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding include the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Kaveri, and the Krishna, which also drain into the Bay of Bengal;[82] and the Narmada and the Tapti, which drain into the Arabian Sea.[83] Among notable coastal features of India are the marshy Rann of Kutch in western India, and the alluvial Sundarbans delta, which India shares with Bangladesh.[84] India has two archipelagos: the Lakshadweep, coral atolls off India's south-western coast; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcanic chain in the Andaman Sea.[85]

India's climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the monsoons.[86] The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes.[87][88] The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture-laden southwest summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India's rainfall.[86] Four major climatic groupings predominate in India: tropical wet, tropical dry, subtropical humid, and montane.[89]

Flora and fauna Main articles: Flora of India and Fauna of India Now among the world's rarest monkeys, the golden langur typifies the precarious survival of much of India's megafauna.India, which lies within the Indomalaya ecozone, displays significant biodiversity. One of eighteen megadiverse countries, it is home to 7.6% of all mammalian, 12.6% of all avian, 6.2% of all reptilian, 4.4% of all amphibian, 11.7% of all fish, and 6.0% of all flowering plant species.[90] Many ecoregions, such as the shola forests, exhibit extremely high rates of endemism; overall, 33% of Indian plant species are endemic.[91][92] India's forest cover ranges from the tropical rainforest of the Andaman Islands, Western Ghats, and North-East India to the coniferous forest of the Himalaya. Between these extremes lie the sal-dominated moist deciduous forest of eastern India; the teak-dominated dry deciduous forest of central and southern India; and the babul-dominated thorn forest of the central Deccan and western Gangetic plain.[93] Important Indian trees include the medicinal neem, widely used in rural Indian herbal remedies. The pipal fig tree, shown on the seals of Mohenjo-daro, shaded Gautama Buddha as he sought enlightenment.

Many Indian species are descendants of taxa originating in Gondwana, to which India originally belonged. Peninsular India's subsequent movement towards, and collision with, the Laurasian landmass set off a mass exchange of species. However, volcanism and climatic changes 20 million years ago caused the extinction of many endemic Indian forms.[94] Soon thereafter, mammals entered India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes on either side of the emerging Himalaya.[93] Consequently, among Indian species, only 12.6% of mammals and 4.5% of birds are endemic, contrasting with 45.8% of reptiles and 55.8% of amphibians.[90] Notable endemics are the Nilgiri leaf monkey and the brown and carmine Beddome's toad of the Western Ghats. India contains 172, or 2.9%, of IUCN-designated threatened species.[95] These include the Asiatic Lion, the Bengal Tiger, and the Indian white-rumped vulture, which suffered a near-extinction from ingesting the carrion of diclofenac-treated cattle.

In recent decades, human encroachment has posed a threat to India's wildlife; in response, the system of national parks and protected areas, first established in 1935, was substantially expanded. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act[96] and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial habitat; in addition, the Forest Conservation Act[97] was enacted in 1980. Along with more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries, India hosts thirteen biosphere reserves,[98] four of which are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; twenty-five wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention.[99]

Economy Main article: Economy of India See also: Economic history of India and Economic development in India The Bombay Stock Exchange, in Mumbai, is Asia's oldest and India's largest stock exchange.For an entire generation from the 1950s until the 1980s, India followed socialist-inspired policies. The economy was shackled by extensive regulation, protectionism, and public ownership, leading to pervasive corruption and slow growth.[100][101][102][103] Since 1991, the nation has moved towards a market-based system.[101][102] The policy change in 1991 came after an acute balance of payments crisis, and the emphasis since then has been to use foreign trade and foreign investment as integral parts of India's economy.[104]

With an average annual GDP growth rate of 5.8% for the past two decades, the economy is among the fastest growing in the world.[105] It has the world's second largest labour force, with 516.3 million people. In terms of output, the agricultural sector accounts for 28% of GDP; the service and industrial sectors make up 54% and 18% respectively. Major agricultural products include rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, potatoes; cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats, poultry; fish.[54] Major industries include textiles, chemicals, food processing, steel, transport equipment, cement, mining, petroleum, machinery, software.[54] India's trade has reached a relatively moderate share 24% of GDP in 2006, up from 6% in 1985.[101] India's share of world trade has reached 1%. Major exports include petroleum products, textile goods, gems and jewelry, software, engineering goods, chemicals, leather manufactures.[54] Major imports include crude oil, machinery, gems, fertilizer, chemicals.[54]

India's GDP is US$1.237 trillion, which makes it the twelfth-largest economy in the world[106] or fourth largest by purchasing power adjusted exchange rates. India's nominal per capita income US$1,068 is ranked 128th in the world. In the late 2000s, India's economic growth has averaged 7½% a year, which will double the average income in a decade.[101]

Despite India's impressive economic growth over recent decades, it still contains the largest concentration of poor people in the world, and has a higher rate of malnutrition among children under the age of three (46% in year 2007) than any other country in the world[107][108]. The percentage of people living below the World Bank's international poverty line of $1.25 a day (PPP, in nominal terms Rs. 21.6 a day in urban areas and Rs 14.3 in rural areas in 2005) decreased from 60% in 1981 to 42% in 2005[109] Even though India has avoided famines in recent decades, half of children are underweight, one of the highest rates in the world and nearly double the rate of Sub-Saharan Africa.[110]

Ongoing reforms are watched closely as India could potentially become an important contributor to the growth of the global economy. A 2007 Goldman Sachs report projected that "from 2007 to 2020, India’s GDP per capita will quadruple," and that the Indian GDP will surpass the United States before 2050, but India "will remain a low-income country for several decades, with per capita incomes well below its other BRIC peers."[103] Although the Indian economy has grown steadily over the last two decades; its growth has been uneven when comparing different social groups, economic groups, geographic regions, and rural and urban areas.[111] World Bank suggests that the most important priorities are public sector reform, infrastructure, agricultural and rural development, removal of labor regulations, reforms in lagging states, and HIV/AIDS.[112]

Demographics Main article: Demographics of India See also: Religion in India, Languages of India, and Ethnic groups of South Asia Population density map of India.With an estimated population of 1.2 billion,[9] India is the world's second most populous country. The last 50 years have seen a rapid increase in population due to medical advances and massive increase in agricultural productivity made by the green revolution.[113][114] Almost 70% of Indians reside in rural areas, although in recent decades migration to larger cities has led to a dramatic increase in the country's urban population. India's largest cities are Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad and Ahmedabad.[54]

India is the world's most culturally, linguistically and genetically diverse geographical entity after the African continent.[54] India is home to two major linguistic families: Indo-Aryan (spoken by about 74% of the population) and Dravidian (spoken by about 24%). Other languages spoken in India come from the Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman linguistic families. Hindi, with the largest number of speakers,[115] is the official language of the union.[116] English is used extensively in business and administration and has the status of a 'subsidiary official language;'[117] it is also important in education, especially as a medium of higher education. In addition, every state and union territory has its own official languages, and the constitution also recognises in particular 21 other languages that are either abundantly spoken or have classical status. While Sanskrit and Tamil have been studied as classical languages for many years,[118] the Government of India has also accorded classical language status to Kannada and Telugu using its own criteria.[119] The number of dialects in India is as high as 1,652.[120]

Over 800 million Indians (80.5%) are Hindu. Other religious groups include Muslims (13.4%), Christians (2.3%), Sikhs (1.9%), Buddhists (0.8%), Jains (0.4%), Jews, Zoroastrians, Bahá'ís and others.[121] Tribals constitute 8.1% of the population.[122] India has the third-highest Muslim population in the world and has the highest population of Muslims for a non-Muslim majority country.

India's literacy rate is 64.8% (53.7% for females and 75.3% for males).[34] The state of Kerala has the highest literacy rate at 91% while Bihar has the lowest at 47%.[123][124] The national human sex ratio is 944 females per 1,000 males. India's median age is 24.9, and the population growth rate of 1.38% per annum; there are 22.01 births per 1,000 people per year.[34]

Cities by population Rank Core City State Population Rank Core City State Population view • talk • edit

Mumbai

Delhi

1 Mumbai Maharashtra 13,922,125 11 Jaipur Rajasthan 3,102,808 2 Delhi Delhi 12,259,230 12 Lucknow Uttar Pradesh 2,685,528 3 Bangalore Karnataka 5,310,318 13 Nagpur Maharashtra 2,403,239 4 Kolkata West Bengal 5,080,519 14 Patna Bihar 1,814,012 5 Chennai Tamil Nadu 4,590,267 15 Indore Madhya Pradesh 1,811,513 6 Hyderabad Andhra Pradesh 4,025,335 16 Bhopal Madhya Pradesh 1,752,244 7 Ahmedabad Gujarat 3,913,793 17 Thane Maharashtra 1,739,697 8 Pune Maharashtra 3,337,481 18 Ludhiana Punjab 1,701,212 9 Surat Gujarat 3,233,988 19 Agra Uttar Pradesh 1,638,209 10 Kanpur Uttar Pradesh 3,144,267 20 Pimpri Chinchwad Maharashtra 1,553,538 2009 estimation[125]

Culture Main article: Culture of India The Taj Mahal in Agra was built by Shah Jahan as memorial to wife Mumtaz Mahal. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site considered to be of "outstanding universal value".[126]India's culture is marked by a high degree of syncretism[127] and cultural pluralism.[128] It has managed to preserve established traditions while absorbing new customs, traditions, and ideas from invaders and immigrants and spreading its cultural influence to other parts of Asia, mainly South East and East Asia. Traditional Indian society is defined by relatively strict social hierarchy. The Indian caste system describes the social stratification and social restrictions in the Indian subcontinent, in which social classes are defined by thousands of endogamous hereditary groups, often termed as jātis or castes.

Traditional Indian family values are highly respected, and multi-generational patriarchal joint families have been the norm, although nuclear family are becoming common in urban areas.[100] An overwhelming majority of Indians have their marriages arranged by their parents and other respected family members, with the consent of the bride and groom.[129] Marriage is thought to be for life,[129] and the divorce rate is extremely low.[130] Child marriage is still a common practice, with half of women in India marrying before the legal age of 18.[131][132]

Indian cuisine is characterised by a wide variety of regional styles and sophisticated use of herbs and spices. The staple foods in the region are rice (especially in the south and the east) and wheat (predominantly in the north).[133] Spices like black pepper that are now consumed world wide are originally native to the Indian subcontinent. Chili pepper, which was introduced by the Portuguese is also very much used within Indian Cuisine.[134]

The earliest form of the Buddha worshipped in India, the Sakyamuni Buddha depicts the moment he attained enlightenmentTraditional Indian dress varies across the regions in its colours and styles and depends on various factors, including climate. Popular styles of dress include draped garments such as sari for women and dhoti or lungi for men; in addition, stitched clothes such as salwar kameez for women and kurta-pyjama and European-style trousers and shirts for men, are also popular.

Many Indian festivals are religious in origin, although several are celebrated irrespective of caste and creed. Some popular festivals are Diwali, Ganesh Chaturthi, Ugadi, Thai Pongal, Holi, Onam, Vijayadasami, Durga Puja, Eid ul-Fitr, Bakr-Id, Christmas, Buddha Jayanti and Vaisakhi.[135] India has three national holidays. Other sets of holidays, varying between nine and twelve, are officially observed in individual states. Religious practices are an integral part of everyday life and are a very public affair.

Indian architecture is one area that represents the diversity of Indian culture. Much of it, including notable monuments such as the Taj Mahal and other examples of Mughal architecture and South Indian architecture, comprises a blend of ancient and varied local traditions from several parts of the country and abroad. Vernacular architecture also displays notable regional variation.

Indian music covers a wide range of traditions and regional styles. Classical music largely encompasses the two genres – North Indian Hindustani, South Indian Carnatic traditions and their various offshoots in the form of regional folk music. Regionalised forms of popular music include filmi and folk music; the syncretic tradition of the bauls is a well-known form of the latter.

Indian dance too has diverse folk and classical forms. Among the well-known folk dances are the bhangra of the Punjab, the bihu of Assam, the chhau of West Bengal, Jharkhand and sambalpuri of Orissa and the ghoomar of Rajasthan. Eight dance forms, many with narrative forms and mythological elements, have been accorded classical dance status by India's National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama. These are: bharatanatyam of the state of Tamil Nadu, kathak of Uttar Pradesh, kathakali and mohiniyattam of Kerala, kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh, manipuri of Manipur, odissi of Orissa and the sattriya of Assam.[136]

Theatre in India often incorporates music, dance, and improvised or written dialogue.[137] Often based on Hindu mythology, but also borrowing from medieval romances, and news of social and political events, Indian theatre includes the bhavai of state of Gujarat, the jatra of West Bengal, the nautanki and ramlila of North India, the tamasha of Maharashtra, the burrakatha of Andhra Pradesh, the terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu, and the yakshagana of Karnataka.[138]

The Indian film industry is the largest in the world.[139] Bollywood, based in Mumbai, makes commercial Hindi films and is the most prolific film industry in the world.[140] Established traditions also exist in Bengali, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Tamil, and Telugu language cinemas.[141]

The earliest works of Indian literature were transmitted orally and only later written down.[142] These included works of Sanskrit literature – such as the early Vedas, the epics Mahābhārata and Ramayana, the drama Abhijñānaśākuntalam (The Recognition of Śakuntalā), and poetry such as the Mahākāvya[143] – and the Tamil language Sangam literature.[144] Among Indian writers of the modern era active in Indian languages or English, Rabindranath Tagore won the Nobel Prize in 1913.