User:Srehman07/Hijra (South Asia)

Gender and sexuality
These identities have no exact match in the taxonomy of gender and sexual orientation, and challenge Western ideas of sex and gender.

'A common misconception of many in Indian society is that hijra'' are intersex, asexual, and impotent. This is not fully accurate as many hijra are sexually active, in relationships, or may even partake in sex work.''' In India, some Hijras do not define themselves by specific sexual orientation, but rather by renouncing sexuality altogether. Sexual energy is transformed into sacred powers. However, these notions can come in conflict with the practical, which is that hijras are often employed as prostitutes. Furthermore, in India a feminine male who takes a "receptive" role in sex with a man will often identify as a kothi (or the local equivalent term). While kothis are usually distinguished from hijras as a separate gender identity, they often dress as women and act in a feminine manner in public spaces, even using feminine language to refer to themselves and each other. The usual partners of hijras and kothis are men who consider themselves heterosexual as they are the ones who penetrate. These male partners are often married, and any relationships or sex with "kothis" or hijras are usually kept secret from the community at large. Some hijras may form relationships with men and even marry, although their marriage is not usually recognized by law or religion. Hijras and kothis often have a name for these masculine sexual or romantic partners; for example, panthi in Bangladesh, giriya in Delhi or sridhar in Cochin. 'A 2015 study found that self identified panthi'' participants reported thier sexual orientation as bisexual but otherwise aligned with male-typical in other study measures. Identification as hijra, kothi and panthi can be distinguished from Western categories, as they go beyond sexual attraction (such as gay, lesbian or bisexual in the West) to also include gender roles/presentation and preference in sexual postition. '''

'''A qualitative, interview based study found that those who fall under the umbrella of being hijra tend to identify with certain ‘schools of thought’ including Khusrapan and Zananapan. These terms refer to categories of hijra functioning. Those who follow Khusrapan identify with being a Hermaphrodite, denouncing sex work while believing that the ancient practices of bestowing prayers and blessings are to be depended on for sustenance. In contrast, the Zananapan school of thought has followers who may be born biologically male but identify with being a woman through their appearance and lifestyle. They often turn to begging or sex work as a consequence of social exclusion.'''

Housing
'''The aforementioned all-hijra communities are where many hijra seek refuge and move in. These are made up of a hierarchical structure with large groups of hijras from different areas forming houses or ‘gharanas’. A Naayak, is the head and primary decision maker for a gharana, determining policies for the community. Falling under a Naayak are the gurus, which translates to teachers. These gurus are above community members and regulate daily life. The followers of a guru are known as chelas, and are taught about hijra customs by the guru.'''

'''In these communities, the hijras usually refer to each other in feminine terms. Thus, they refer to their relations as sisters with those who fall around their age range or aunt with those elder to them, and so on.'''

In October 2013, Pakistani Christians and Muslims (Shia and Sunni) put pressure on the landlords of Imamia Colony to evict any transgender residents. I.A. Rehman, the director of the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, said, "Generally in Pakistan, Khwaja Sira are not under threat. But they are in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province because of a 'new Islam' under way."

Healthcare
'''The social status of hijra in society plays a part in their difficulty accessing healthcare services as doctors will turn hijra clients away, claiming that their presence will disturb other clients. Hijra have to hide their identities or can’t disclose illnesses such as STI’s. Most medical practitioners are also not well educated and informed enough on hijra or sexuality, further contributing to this issue. Social exclusion of the hijra also has some severe consequences for their health: '''

'Hijra'' in Dhaka, Bangladesh were found to have the highest syphilis rates out of all at-risk groups in the city. ' In a study of Bangladeshi hijras'', participants reported not being allowed to seek healthcare at the private chambers of doctors, and experiencing abuse if they go to government hospitals.

In 2008, HIV prevalence was 27.6% amongst hijra sex workers in Larkana, Pakistan. The general prevalence of HIV among the adult Pakistani population is estimated at 0.1%. '''The aforementioned social inequalities and medical negligence also make hijra sex workers a more vulnerable population to HIV. Protection is not usually used in coerced sex, increasing risk of direct exposure to HIV.  40% of the sample in a Pakistan study on HIV reported experiencing forced sex or abuse. Additionally, of this sample, 58% of participants had STI's, the most common being syphilis and gonorrhoea.'''

'''An Indian study consisting of 68 transgender participants reported that respondents expressed having intense feelings of low self worth, shame depression and suicidal thoughts, internalizing the negative views the society around them holds. Many hijra experience a lack of a support system, facing rejection from family members or difficulties in terms of maintaining steady relationships with romantic partners. This rejection from society contributes to struggles with mental health as well as trans sex workers feeling obligated to accept the violence and stigmas they are subject to.'''

Education and employment
I'n an ethnographic study on the hijra experience in Bangladesh, many hijra'' recounted childhood experiences of facing abuse and isolation from their peers for presenting as feminine males. Additionally, many hijra reported facing abuse and humiliation from their teachers as well, making school an unfriendly and uncomfortable environment for them. These experiences ultimately resulted in their reluctance to attend school or continue education. This lack of education ends up playing a role in unemployment rates of Hijra. Hijra in Bangladesh also experience sexual harassment and abuse at work, being removed from their jobs when outed as hijra or denied from jobs in general. They face accusations of disturbing the workplace environment. '''

'''Being turned away from traditional careers, many hijra have become involved in sex work. However, this too has its own cons as Hijras face harassment, forced unprotected sex and assault from clients but many are not able to report it due to fear of harassment from the police as well. '''

In 2002, nearly 5,000 people attended the All India Eunuch Conference held in Varanasi; the conference's platform demanded that universities and government open more job opportunities to this population. On 15 April 2014, in National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India, the Supreme Court of India ruled that transgender people should be treated as a third category of gender or as a socially and economically "backward" class entitled to proportional access and representation in education and jobs.

Beginning in 2006, hijras were engaged to accompany Patna city revenue officials to collect unpaid taxes, receiving a 4-percent commission.

History[edit]
The ancient Kama Sutra mentions the performance of fellatio by feminine people of a third sex (tritiya prakriti). This passage has been variously interpreted as referring to men who desired other men, so-called eunuchs ("those disguised as males, and those that are disguised as females", male and female trans people ("the male takes on the appearance of a female and the female takes on the appearance of the male"), or two kinds of biological males, one dressed as a woman, the other as a man. Furthermore, in the Puranas (sanscrit religious texts) three kinds of ‘devas’ or divine beings of music and dance were identified. These included apsaras, gandharvas, and kinnars, with the former two referring to female and male while the latter refers to ‘neuters’. Additionally, the early writings of the Manu Smriti explained the biological origin of the sexes, identifying a third sex that could result if there was an equal prevalence of male and female 'seed'.

Franciscan travellers in the 1650s noted the presence of "Men and boys who dress like women" roaming the streets of Thatta, in modern Pakistan. The presence of these individuals was taken to be a sign of the city's depravity. British identification of 'eunuchs' dates all the way back to the 18th Century, with accounts describing them as 'malformed and repulsive'. During the era of the British Raj, authorities attempted to eradicate hijras, whom they saw as "a breach of public decency." Anti-hijra laws were enacted; whereas a law outlawing castration, a central part of the hijra community, was left intact, though it was rarely enforced. During the same period, the hijra were included in the Criminal Tribes Act and labelled a "criminal tribe". A criminal tribe was defined as a person dressed or appearing like a woman, or medically considered to be ‘impotent’. The hijra were subjected to compulsory registration, strict monitoring and stigmatized for a long time; after independence however they were denotified in 1952, though the centuries-old stigma continues.