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Introduction
Raymond Williams, in the introduction to his book - ‘Culture and Society’, begins by claiming that the latter half of the 18th century and early 19th century saw new meanings(definitions) being ascribed to certain words which would act as important points in mapping the changing life and language during the era. The changes in meanings associated with - industry, democracy, class, art and culture act ‘key points’ which add to our understanding of the transforming nature of common life. It provides insight into the workings of social, political and economical systems, the purpose that they serve, and the manner in which they affect learning, education and the arts. Williams rightly points out that the 18th century indeed had been an important turning point for the world. With the dawn of Age of Enlightenment in Europe, there was an increasing emphasis being laid on scientific methods and reductionism along with questioning of religious beliefs and orthodoxy. This observable attitude amongst the masses was summed up in the phrase - Sapere aude (A latin phrase meaning “Dare to know” popularised by Immanuel Kant in the essay, “Answering the Question: What Is Enlightenment?” written in 1784). The ‘Industrial Revolution’ wasn’t just a symptom of this Age of Enlightenment, but was perhaps the epitome of the spirit of this age. It was only in the latter half of 18th century, i.e, 1760’s that the effects of this ‘revolution’ began to take a forefront. The Agricultural Revolution proved to be a pioneer in sparking the Industrial revolution.Simultaneously, with the advent of machineries such as John Kay's "flying shuttle", James Hargreaves' "spinning jenny" (1764), James Watt's "steam engine" (1769) and several others, the Textile industry flourished. These were machines designed for the sole purpose of ‘mass production’ - a recurring theme in the contemporary society. Out of all the machines that were produced during the infant years of Industrial Revolution, it was perhaps steam engine which rose to be one of the most important inventions of the human civilisation. The use of machinery in the ‘cottage industry’ led them to shift to a new ‘factory system’. Here, is where we can trace the change in lives of millions of factory workers as there was a new understanding of locations and unskilled labours came about. New concepts such as standardisation, centralisation and economy of scale redefined the manner in which commerce and trade came to be understood. As the lives of people changed, so did their way of looking at ‘Industry’ as an institution than a quality, ‘democracy’ as a political right as opposed to a method of decision making, class as a social identity than a group of persons, art as a medium of expression and culture as a collective historical experience.

Industry
In Williams’ view the Industrial Revolution played a pivotal role in transforming the manner in which the term industry came to be understood. He claims that prior to the revolution, it merely referred to a human attribute which was synonymous to ‘skill, assiduity, perseverance, diligence’. However, in the latter half of 18th century, Industry (capitalized) came to be associated with manufacturing and productive institutions. He credits Adam Smith for pioneering this association in his book The Wealth of Nations (1766). The human aspect of the word ‘Industrious’ was replaced by the institutional aspect in ‘Industrial’. This morphology of words are directly linked to the social transformation brought about by Industrialism - a term coined in 1830’s to refer to the rapid growth of manufacturing industries. The term ‘Industrialism’ acknowledges a series of important changes - transformation in the methods of production and its subsequent effect on the society as a whole. The English writers’ adoption of the term ‘Industrial Revolution’ from the French confirms the ripples created in the society with the advent of ‘industries’. From the advent of the Industrial revolution, there had been an emergence of a rising middle class/ working class who were employed in these Industries and Mills which was responsible for mass production. While ‘industry’ would’ve earlier refer to the skill of these labourers, since the mass-producing institutions mostly employed machines to do the work, the characteristic of ‘industry’ was thus removed from these employees and ascribed to the collective machines which performed most of the labour. Thus, industry becomes symbolic of a collective mechanism of machineries working together to form a finished product. Adam Smith, in his book – The wealth of nations, starts off by using the word industry in its original sense. However, as he introduces the institutions which are responsible for the production of goods, he uses the words interchangeably – quite like the manner in which the human labour was slowly replaced by machines. The only spectre of human labour that remained in the meaning of industry was the latent work of operation these machines.

Democracy
Democracy, as a term existed in the Greek context since the 13th century but made it to the English dictionary only at the time of the American and the French Revolution, Williams observed. Democracy was placed next to words like Jacobinism or mob-rule, quite clearly giving it negative connotations, looking at democrats as “dangerous and subversive mob agitators” (Williams, xii). Owing its entry into the ordinary speech, ‘democracy’ went through a lot of struggle. Democracy, as we know it today, was once rejected and highly questioned. There could have been a number of reasons for it. The threat it posed to the existing system of monarchy was one. Democracy gave supremacy to the masses, which, for obvious reasons, was a threat to the preexisting system. Democracy pays attention to the community as a whole and its societal values, keeping aside the individual ethic, while its major strength is the individual in the society.

Class
Class, before 1772, was used to refer to a division or group in schools and colleges. It only came into existence as we know it in the social context in the 18th century. The term ‘lower class’ was the first to make its way into the everyday vocabulary, which was followed by various other class-related terms like, ‘higher classes’, ‘middle classes’, ‘middling classes’, ‘working classes’, and ‘upper classes’. This was followed by terms like ‘class prejudice’, ‘class legislation’, ‘class consciousness’, ‘class conflict’, and ‘class war’ in the 19th century. However, this in no way, was the starting point of the social divisions in England, which had always existed in various forms. What it changes is the way these divisions have been looked at. The word ‘class’ made the entire idea of social divisions more articulate. ‘Class’ as a word is indefinite, giving it the liberty to be inclusive of the changes that may occur in the society. That is how it gave rise to the 19th century words describing various ideas related to class without changing what it meant. Considering Williams looked at the working class in detail, it seems only natural that he would give a lot of importance to this term.

Art
It is astonishing on how amidst all the revolutions taking place, Raymond Williams thought that the aspect of art and culture could make a remarkable impact and contribute to bringing about a huge change. His perspective on how to give a creative approach to the modifications being made in the society during that time, was something that not many other theorists paid so much attention on. Just like an artist creates a unique way to express himself, Williams too, thought that art could transform both people and institutions, simultaneously. He felt for the new generation to a great extent and opined that the upcoming generation, with some experiences from the previous ones, could interpret several aspects of life differently and give it a new shape or a new purpose, altogether. Art can transform people in the most beautiful and optimistic way possible. It cannot be dismissed or neglected because it is present in the minutest of happenings around us. Hence, what Williams tried to convey through his words in The Long Revolution, 1961, was that art is central and paves a way for how the world should be perceived and experienced.

Culture
Culture, whether stated or not, can be studied in various manners. It can be stated in different ways pertaining to how each individual perceives it. However, Raymond William’s take on this particular word, rather topic in itself, is something which other theorists draw contradictions upon. Williams feels that culture is the thing that draws a divide between collectivism in the method of self-approving inheritance which binds it, altogether. Culture, as said by him, is somewhat ordinary and has been put on an unnecessary pedestal since long. It is mundane in every society and in every mind because each one of us function in a different way and that cannot be put to debate. Having two aspects, the known implications and meanings, which its individuals are prepared for; the new perceptions and implications, which are offered, tried and tested time and again, the aspect of culture keeps altering.

Conclusion
Raymond Williams was one of the greatest scholars and theorists and almost every single one of his contributions have been of immense benefit till date. Through this essay, he did not just try to convey the various discoveries and connotative meanings of various terms like industry and culture, but also threw light upon the several other aspects that helped build up these meanings and without which, we would not be looking at things with this perspective. He scrutinized democracy and class with a completely different approach, which turned out to be the reason of the innumerable changes that were brought in. Through his words, he changed the way people viewed the system of caste and class and by studying the minutest details quite thoroughly, he gradually became somebody that could be idolized in so many ways. He depicted the importance of art and culture through his work, The Long Revolution, 1961 and made it extremely clear that art was central and could give a new horizon to the revisions being brought into light. Williams also paved the way of education through art and culture in various ways because an ideal artist takes an extremely creative approach to everything. Basically, what Williams has projected through this essay is the importance of culture and how it has been given new meanings since a long time now since they vary from individual to individual and is constantly evolving.

Critical Perspectives on the Text
Raymond Williams tries to trace the history in order to understand the current scenario of one of the basic necessities of human civilization – i.e, trade. He emphasizes on the role of Industrial Revolution in changing the course of history. He does this through tracing the changes in five ‘key-points’ which he believes to be imperative in understanding the common life. His purpose of choosing industry as one of the key points might have been to highlight the influence of the era of Pax Britannica, and the shaping of human civilization through the means of colonization. Perhaps, he also tries to highlight the dehumanizing aspects of science and technology, and the shrinking role of human beings in any endeavor. Through tracing the aspects of democracy, he addresses the larger questions of the ethos, principles and moralistic view of life encapsulated in the society. Class as a culmination of uniting experiences among human beings – giving them a sense of belongingness in the world of diverse physical, intellectual, emotional and philosophical occupancies. Art as a medium of communication and expression as is observed from the dawn of human civilization as one of the basic functions required for the survival of humanity, and culture as shaper of identities and a sense of self.