User:Stevey7788/Campbell

Classification schemes for indigenous languages of the Americas

List
The linguist Lyle Campbell gives a list of various proposals of macro-families and language relationships, to which he assigns different percentage values of probability and confidence, depending on his views of the proposals' strengths. For example, if Turkish and Quechua were compared, the probability value might be -95%, while the confidence value might be 95%. 0% would mean complete uncertainty.

Source: from Campbell, ch. 8 Distant Genetic Relationships, pp. 260-329

Linguistic Areas
Campbell also lists over 20 sprachbunds or linguistic areas, many of which are still hypothetical.

Note: Some linguistic areas may overlap with others.

Source: from Campbell, ch. 9 Linguistic Areas of the Americas, pp. 330-352

Mixed languages
Lyle Campbell gives a list of pidgins and trade languages spoken by the indigenous peoples of the Americas. Some of these mixed languages have not been documented and are known only by name.


 * Mednyj Aleut (Copper Island Aleut)
 * Chinook Jargon
 * Broken Slavey (Slavey Jargon)
 * Loucheux Jargon
 * Michif (French Cree, Métis, Metchif)
 * "Boken Oghibbeway" (Broken Ojibwa)
 * Basque-Algonquian Pidgin (spoken by the Basques, Micmacs, and Montagnais in eastern Canada)
 * Delaware Jargon
 * Pidgin Massachusett
 * Jargonized Powhatan
 * Lingua Franca Creek
 * Lingua Franca Apalachee
 * Mobilian Jargon
 * Güegüence-Nicarao (formerly spoken in Nicaragua)
 * Carib Pidgin or Ndjuka-Amerindian Pidgin (Ndjuka-Trio)
 * Carib Pidgin-Arawak mixed language
 * Media Lengua
 * Catalangu
 * Callahuaya (Machaj-Juyai, Kallawaya)
 * Nheengatú or Lingua Geral Amazonica ("Lingua Boa," Lingua Brasílica, Lingua Geral do Norte)
 * Lingua Geral do Sul or Lingua Geral Paulista (Tupí Austral)
 * Labrador Eskimo Pidgin
 * Hudson Strait Pidgin Eskimo (spoken from 1750-1850)
 * Nootka Jargon (1700s-1800s; later replaced by Chinook Jargon)
 * Trader Navajo
 * Yopará (Guaraní-Spanish pidgin)
 * Afro-Seminole Creole (variety of Gullah)
 * Haida Jargon
 * Kutenai Jargon
 * Guajiro-Spanish mixed language

Lingua francas
 * Ocaneechi/Occaneechee (spoken in Virginia and the Carolinas in early colonial times)
 * Tuscarora language
 * Plains sign language

Source: from Campbell, Appendix:Native American Pidgins and Trade Languages, pp. 18-25

Theories
Lyle Campbell lists several theories for the historical origins of Amerindian languages.


 * 1) A single, one-language migration (currently not widely accepted)
 * 2) A few linguistically distant migrations (favored by Sapir)
 * 3) Multiple migrations
 * 4) Multilingual migrations (single migration with multiple languages)
 * 5) The influx of already diversified but related languages
 * 6) Extinction of Old World linguistic relatives (while the New World ones survived)
 * 7) Migration down the Pacific coast instead of the Bering Strait

Source: from Campbell, ch. 3 The Origin of American Indian Languages, pp. 90-106