User:Stewartadcock/en-junior/Geography



Geography is a scientific study. Geography is about what is where on the Earth, and also why it is there and not somewhere else. Geographers study this whether the cause is natural or human and also the consequences of those differences.

Geography includes cartography, the study of maps, but also covers very much more.

History of geography
The Greeks are the first known culture to actively explore geography as a science and philosophy. Mapping by the Romans as they explored new lands added new techniques. During the Middle Ages, Arabs such as Idrisi, Ibn Batutta, and Ibn Khaldun maintained the Greek and Roman techniques and developed new ones.

Following the journeys of Marco Polo, interest in geography spread throughout Europe. The great voyages of exploration in 16th and 17th centuries revived a desire for both accurate geographic detail, and more solid theoretical foundations. This period is also known as Great Geographical Discoveries. By the 18th century, geography had become recognized as a discrete discipline and became part of a typical university curriculum in Europe (especially Paris and Berlin).

Over the past two centuries the quantity of knowledge and the number of tools has exploded. There are strong links between geography and the sciences of geology and botany, as well as economics, sociology and demographics. In the West during the 20th century, the discipline of geography went through four major phases: environmental determinism, regional geography, the quantitative revolution, and critical geography.

Physical geography
This branch focuses on Geography as an Earth science (and is sometimes called Earth System Science), making use of biology to understand global flora and fauna patterns, and mathematics and physics to understand the motion of the earth and relationship with other bodies in the solar system. It also includes landscape ecology and environmental geography.

The branches of Physical Geography are:


 * Geomorphology
 * Hydrology
 * Glaciology
 * Biogeography
 * Climatology
 * Pedology
 * Costal/ Marine studies
 * Geodesy
 * Palaeogeography
 * Environmental geography and management

Sometimes Oceanography is included as a branch within physical geography, but is now considered a separate subject in its own right.

Related Topics: atmosphere -- archipelago -- continent -- desert -- island -- landform -- ocean -- sea -- river -- lake -- ecology -- climatology -- soil -- geomorphology -- biogeography -- Timeline of geography, paleontology -- palaeogeography -- hydrology -- glaciology --pedology -- coastal science -- geostatistics -- environmental science-- geodesy -- oceanography

Human geography
Human geography, including economic, political and cultural geography, also called anthropogeography, focuses on the social science, non-physical aspects of the way the world is arranged. It examines how humans adapt themselves to the land and to other people, and in macroscopic transformations they enact on the world.

Human Geography can be divided into the following broad categories:


 * Economic geography
 * Political geography or Geopolitics
 * Social geography
 * Urban geography
 * cultural geography
 * Feminist geography
 * Strategic geography
 * Population geography or Demography
 * Behavioral geography
 * Developmental geography
 * Historical geography
 * Regional science
 * Military geography

Related Topics: Countries of the world -- country -- nation -- state -- personal union -- province -- county -- city -- municipality -- central_place_theory --

Historical geography
This branch seeks to determine how cultural features of the multifarious societies across the planet evolved and came into being. Study of the landscape is one of many key foci in this field - much can be deduced about earlier societies from their impact on their local environment and surroundings.

Geographic information science
The science behind Geographic Information Systems (GIS).

Geographic techniques
Cartography has grown from a collection of drafting techniques into an actual science. Cartographers must learn cognitive psychology and ergonomics to understand which symbols convey information about the Earth most effectively, and behavioral psychology to induce the readers of their maps to act on the information. They must learn geodesy and fairly advanced mathematics to understand how the shape of the Earth affects the distortion of map symbols projected onto a flat surface for viewing.
 * Cartography studies the representation of the Earth's surface with abstract symbols. It can be said, without much controversy, that cartography is the seed from which the larger field of Geography grew. Most geographers will cite a childhood fascination with maps as an early sign they would end up in the field. Although other subdisciplines of geography rely on maps for presenting their analyses, the actual making of maps is abstract enough to be regarded separately.


 * Geographic Information Systems deals with the storage of information about the Earth for automatic retrieval by a computer, in an accurate manner appropriate to the information's purpose. In addition to all of the other subdisciplines of geography, GIS specialists must understand computer science and database systems. GIS has so revolutionized the field of cartography that nearly all mapmaking is now done with the assistance of some form of GIS software.


 * Geographic quantitative methods deal with numerical methods peculiar to (or at least most commonly found in) geography. In addition to spatial analyses, you are likely to find things like cluster analysis, discriminant analysis, and non-parametric statistical tests in geographic studies.

Urban and regional planning
Urban planning and regional planning use the science of geography to assist in determining how to develop (or not develop) the land to meet particular criteria, such as safety, beauty, economic opportunities, the preservation of the built or natural heritage, etcetera. The planning of towns, cities and rural areas may be seen as applied geography although it also draws heavily upon the arts, the sciences and lessons of history. Some of the issues facing planning are considered briefly under the headings of rural exodus, urban exodus and Smart Growth.

Regional science
In the 1950s the regional science movement arose, led by Walter Isard to provide a more quantitative and analytical base to geographical questions, in contrast to the more qualitative tendencies of traditional geography programs. Regional Science comprises the body of knowledge in which the spatial dimension plays a fundamental role, such as regional economics, resource management, location theory, urban and regional planning, transport and communication, human geography, population distribution, landscape ecology, and environmental quality.