User:Summertimehome/sandbox

<!-- EDIT BELOW THIS LINE

What is the reason for Maxwell's equations? In acoustical physics the spherical wave equation, of a sound wave, is not derived using equations similar to Maxwell's equation since it is unnecessary derive the spherical wave equation. One can write out the equation of a spherical sound wave, without using differential equations,

A = Ao sin(kz)....................................................................12

The purpose of Maxwell's equations is to conceal the fact that a disturbance in three dimension volume forms a spherical wave that produces a longitudinal wave not a transverse wave. Example, Using a variation of Faraday's induction experiment, a propagating magnet's magnetic field interacts with a wire loop, inducting the wire loop emf. The magnetic flux that is propagating in the direction of the magnet and incident perpendicular to the plane of the wire loop forms the wire loop emf induction effect; therefore, the magnetic field pointing in the direction of propagation which represents a longitudinal wave.

-

Physicists are using the two dimensial represnetion of the atom's electron with de Broglies electron matter wave to justify the existenc of an atom electron matter wave but an taom repreotis a voluem that cannot form a wave structure. When one attempts to depinct de Groglie's atomic electron mateter wave in a three dimaneinson volume, the structe caollapwess. Using a transvese matter wave or a radial longitudinal wave that follows de Brogle's electron matter waves. A longitiditnal wave radataie outwardly; therfofer, the structure of the electron matter wave would radatiate outside the boundary of the electron which violates the finite radius of an atom's structure. A longitudinal wave fron alngt the circcufernce of the atom oscailltion tangilalya to the cirfercer would cannot be represented in three dimensions. The next posibilbiey is a transverse wvae that forms along the outer circufermence of the atom which is implied by de Broglie's atomic electorns. This would represent circular ring that dimeiosn is circuference and form a shape of a half sphere. tow of these half ring sheres connected togeteher would represent de broglies electron matter wave. When transvering perpendicular to the rings an oscialting cannot be represinted with the de brole's electorn matter wave but when on transerves the ring parallel to the ring the density of the rings is constant and do not represent a wave structure. The phyiscsts are using

Dear Sir and friends.

Dear Sir and friends.

Enclosed is a physics paper ( https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Research432/sandbox&oldid=679025278 )that I believe is extremely important and may interest you and hears the reason why: People are asking why China's economy is slowing and the real answer can be found in Clinton's secret e-mails. The job of Secretary of State is being the henchman of the President, when thing get rough, similar to Kissinger, during the Vietnam War. If Clinton wanted to become the future President she should have distanced herself from Obama and not dirtied or more likely bloodied her hands. Clinton will never become President since she cannot reveal the content of her secret e-mails that describes what she was doing in the Middle East, for the interests of the US or more likely the US corporations, that are funding her campaign. The result of those secret e-mails is the reason that the Chinese economy is slowing. What was in Clinton's secret e-mails? Clinton was instrumental in the instigation of a plan to decrease the price of oil that, at the time, was jeopardizing the growth of the US economy since US gas prices were over five dollars a gallon and was projected to become over seven dollars a gallon by 2015. All this was occurring when the US was printing 85 billion dollars every month to stimulate the economy. Clinton was using the CIA and informants to cause the civil unrest that resulted in the fall of numerous Middle Eastern governments which lead to the anarchy and many civil wars, of relatively prosperous economies due to their oil production or commerce with countries with oil. The elimination of these counties economies, that were purchasing goods from China, is the cause of China's economic slow down and the decrease in the price of oil. What is going to happen to the US economy with China, in a economic slow down; China being a major buyer of US bonds. Economic recession is caused by the stock market crashing (losing 5,000 points) period. It does not matter how many I-phones or Big Macs are sold this year. For more than five years, the stock market has been manipulated with quantitative easing where the US Federal Reserve printed over five trillion dollars to stimulate the US economy; therefore, unless the Feds begin to print more money the US will go into a recession but printing more money will erode confidence and create inflation which is highly understated in governmental reports since the method of determine inflation has been transformed. The Shanghai stock exchange is peaking and falling, as it did in 2009 just before the DOW fall. Their is no escape from the inevitable collapse since the Shanghai stock exchange was inflated using margin trading. After the Federal Reserve ended QE, last year, for the last year, the Dow was also inflated using margin trading. The collapse of the Shanghai exchange will precipitate in the Dow crashing just as in 2009; history is repeating itself. There's no stopping it. What's going to happen when the US stock market collapses? The banks will run and real estate value will disappear or be severely dimensioned since the stock market is connected to the banks, and the banks are connect to real estate, just like in Greece. There's nothing wrong with the Greek banks, its that the Greek people have lost confidence in the system and are pulling their money out of the banks, causing a bank run, in slow motion, because of capital controls since the Greek people are withdrawing seven billion dollars per month and their total deposits are 124 billion dollars. Most banks are required to have a minimum of 15% cash to cover deposits. The US banks have four trillion in Federal excessive reserves that will only cover 10 cent on the dollar. The FDIC only has 50 billion dollars to cover 40 trillion dollar of bank deposits! The US has cause a DOW bubble using quantitative easing, zero interest rates, War and margin trading. Using War to enhance the US economy has failed since to profit, in whole, due to war, requires the acquisition of bounty but in recent US Wars more money is spent then is obtained though war bounty; therefore, war is out of the question since we would probably lose since the US is running a 18 trillion dollar deficit (like Russia in 1905) and we do not have internal oil that is require in the proper functioning of the military during a protracted war. Even if the US has credit after the crash, if the enemy were to cut off the external oil supply, the US military would not have the capacity to function successfully even in a conventional war against a large country, such as China or Russia. Especially, if the US defaults on its debt. The US has not been able to win gorilla wars since we can no longer use nuclear weapons (Hiroshima & Nagasaki) or completely annihilate a civilian population, that is harboring the enemy, using conventional weapons (Dresden & Dunkirk). Truman secretly said "Carpet bombing, smells like VICTOR!" How did Truman justify the second bombing of Nagasaki, children, babies, pregnant women, were incinerated, even those whom opposed the war; he must have been intoxicated. The US, when the DOW crashes (give it three months), will be desperate since the US is out of means to manipulate the DOW. When one think of National Security. One should think of protecting the monetary system rather than spending a fortune in an unsuccessful and expensive attempt at destroying the boggy man (all Muslims with or without beards). The US has been insuring their stock exposure using credit default swaps (CDS) which they refused to eliminate after the crash of 2009 thanks to the likes of people like Bernie Sanders. Who was a member of the Finance Committee, during the crash. When the Stock market collapses, the US government will not be able to cover the CDS. It cost the US tax payers over 300 billion dollars to bailout AIG' CDS's while the bankers were giving themselves bonus that total over 500 billion dollar, in the last six years, at tax payers expense. This money came indirectly from quantitative easing. How do we stop this impending disaster? Easy read my physics paper and start a new golden age with Itoian Physics or God will do the speaking. Peace and Love.

Ben

Ben

The Wave Theory of Light and its affect on Modern Physics and Astronomy

Ben T. Ito

August 31, 2015

'''This paper will analyze the wave theory of light. Huygens describes the propagation of light using light waves formed by the motion of an Ethereal matter. Huygens describes invisible ether particles that possess a hardness that produces a springiness that is used to transmit light energy through the optical ether by the formation of propagating light waves. Fresnel describes diffraction using interfering light-waves formed by the vibration of an elastic fluid yet diffraction forms in a vacuum that is void of an elastic fluid, composed of matter; consequently, Maxwell introduces an electromagnetic theory of light, based on Faraday's induction experiment, but induction is not luminous. Hertz's spark gap experiment is used to structurally unite light with induction but Hertz's spark gap emits electrons yet induction is not an ionization effect. In Einstein's (1905) special relativity, Einstein alters the dimensions of Maxwell's equations to justify light propagating in vacuum but manipulating the coordinate system of Maxwell's equations does not change the fact that vacuum is void of an optical ether, composed of matter, nor does transforming the coordinate system of Maxwell's equations alter the fact that Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction experiment that is not luminous. In addition, Maxwell's equations represent a spherical wave that forms a longitudinal wave that conflicts with Maxwell's transverse waves. Quantum mechanics, quantum electrodynamics, string theory and particle physics are supporting Maxwell's theory by using the gauge transformation of Maxwell's equations but representing Maxwell's equations with an electromagnetic potential does not change the fact that Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction experiment that is not luminous, nor can a massless electromagnetic induction field represent structure of an electron, proton, nuclei or subatomic particle that has a mass. In gravitational physics, Webber (1970) experimentally detected gravity waves that have the frequency of sound (1662 Hz) yet the vacuum of celestial space does not transmit sound waves. Wheeler describes electromagnetic gravity waves and Thorne states that the electromagnetic gravity waves propagate at the velocity of light. The gravity interferometer, of the European pulsar timing array (EPTA), detected a gravity wave with the frequency of 10-8 Hz which forms a wavelength of λ = 1016  meters! The experimental detection of celestial gravity waves with these incredible physical characteristics is the result of the deception and manipulation that is the foundation of the wave theory of light.'''

§ 1. Introduction

The ancient Greeks believed the eye sent out feelers that emanated from the eye and felt the object being observed. All of the ancient Greek writings, including that which involved democracy and law, were translated from Arabic since the Roman conquerors attempted to destroyed everything that the Greeks wrote. In the 7th century AD Middle East, Iraqi scholars studying the ancient Greek writings resulted in the advent of the light ray theory that was a monumental achievement, in the history of light. Abu Yūsuf Yaʻqūb ibn ʼIsḥāq aṣ-Ṣabbāḥ al-Kindī (b. 801 AD) introduced the theory of vision, where light rays, interacting with the eye, formed vision. Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥasan ibn al-Ḥasan ibn al-Haytham (b. 965) enhanced al-Kindi's light ray theory, by dissecting the eye and analyzing the anatomy of the eye, resulting in the invention of the two lens celestial magnifier that Sirian scholar Ibn al-Shatir or Ibn ash-Shatir (b. 1304) used to form the theory that planets revolved around the sun. Copernicus (1474) used al-Shatir's diagrams and calculations to describe planets revolving around the sun. Galileo (b. 1564) used the Arabian two lens magnifier in the design of the astronomic telescope. In 1610, Galileo discovered the rings of Saturn, and supported al Shartir-Copernicus theory which, at the time, was highly controversial; consequently, Galileo was punished with a life sentence, of home incarceration, for his outspoken support of al Shartir-Copernicus theory. Leibniz (b. 1646) studied the area problem of a planetary orbital ellipse, and discovered the mathematical derivative that was used in the discovery of the surface integration. Newton's (b. 1642) equations of motion are based on Leibniz's derivative.

Huygens (1690) describes the propagation, and transmission-reflection effects of light, using light waves formed by the motion of an Ethereal matter where the particles of the ether possess a hardness that produces a springiness that is used to form light waves which propagates through the optical ether, composed of matter (solid, liquid or gas). Fresnel (1819) describes diffraction using interfering light-waves produced by the vibration of an elastic fluid where the light waves interfere, at the diffraction screen, forming the intensity of the diffraction pattern. Maxwell (1864) depicts polarization using transverse light waves, formed by the motion, of an elastic medium yet the propagation, diffraction and polarization effects of light form in vacuum, that is void of an optical ether, composed of matter. Michelson (1881) tests for the existence of Fresnel's optical ether, composed of matter, but the result was negative. Lorentz (1899) reverses the negative result of Michelson's experiment to justify the existence of Fresnel's optical ether but light propagating in vacuum is definitive and irreversible experimental proof Fresnel's optical ether does not physically exist. In addition, Lorentz's transformation uses the constant magnitude of the earth yearly motion's tangential velocity vector px to reverse Michelson's experiment to justify the existence of Fresnel's ether but, at the surface of the earth, as time increases, px is not constant. The same method of deception, using the earth's daily and yearly motions, that ancient scientists used to justify the theory that the earth was the center of the universe is being used by Lorentz and Einstein.

"More artificial theories have been tried out, assuming that the real truth lies somewhere between these two limiting cases: that the ether is only partially carried by the moving bodies. But they all failed! Every attempt to explain the electromagnetic phenomena in moving CS with the help of the motion of the ether, motion through the ether, or both these motions, proved unsuccessful. Thus arose one of the most dramatic situations in the history of science. All assumptions concerning ether led nowhere! The experimental verdict was always negative. Looking back over the development of physics we see that the ether, soon after its birth, became the "enfant terrible" of the family of physical substances. First, the construction of a simple mechanical picture of the ether proved to be impossible and was discarded. This caused, to a great extent, the breakdown of the mechanical point of view. Second, we had to give up hope that through the presence of the ether-sea one CS would be distinguished and lead to the recognition of absolute, and not only relative, motion. This would have been the only way, besides carrying the waves, in which ether could mark and justify its existence. All our attempts to make ether real failed. It revealed neither its mechanical construction nor absolute motion. Nothing remained of all the properties of the ether except that for which it was invented, i.e., its ability to transmit electromagnetic waves. Our attempts to discover the properties of the ether led to difficulties and contradictions. After such bad experiences, this is the moment to forget the ether completely and to try never to mention its name." (Weaver, p. 145-6).

Maxwell's (1864) electromagnetic theory of light, based on Faraday's induction experiment, was introduced since induction forms in vacuum but induction is not luminous; consequently, Poynting (1884) supports Maxwell's theory by deriving an EM energy equation of light but Poynting's current wire is not emitting light. Hertz's (1887) supports Maxwell by structurally uniting light with induction, using a spark gap experiment, that emits light and the radio induction effect, but Hertz's spark gap emits electrons yet Faraday's induction experiment is not an ionization effect which contradicts Maxwell's theory. Furthermore, in 1902, Lenard proves light is composed of particles that energy is dependent on only the frequency which contradicts Fresnel's diffraction mechanism that light-waves' amplitudes form the diffraction pattern's intensity (energy) and the continuity of Maxwell's electromagnetic field. Planck (1901) seeks to structurally unify light with induction, and quantizes Maxwell's electromagnetic field, using the blackbody radiation effect, that emits light and the radio induction effect, by deriving the energy element that represents the blackbody light and radio induction effect emissions which represents the unification and quantization of Maxwell's electromagnetic field but the blackbody radiation effect emits electrons yet induction is not an ionization effect. In Einstein's (1905) special relativity, Einstein alters the dimensions of Maxwell's equations to justify light propagating in vacuum and Maxwell's theory but manipulating the coordinate system of Maxwell's equations does not change the fact that Maxwell's theory is based on light waves formed by the motion of an optical ether, composed of matter, nor does Einstein transformation change the fact that Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction experiment that is not luminous; consequently, in 1910, Einstein describes an electromagnetic ether that forms light waves in vacuum but in Einstein's paper, "Relativity: Special and General Theory" (1917), Einstein reverse the negative result of Michelson-Morley experiment to justify the existence of Fresnel's optical ether, composed of matter! Quantum mechanics, quantum electrodynamics, string theory, and particle physics are supporting Maxwell's theory by using the gauge transformation of Maxwell's equations but representing Maxwell's equations with an electromagnetic potential does not change the fact that Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction experiment that is not luminous. The analysis of the wave theory of light begins with Huygens' principle.

--

§ 2. Huygens

In Huygens' paper, "Treatise on Light" (1690), Huygens' describes light using spherical waves based on a sound wave analogy.

"We know that by means of the air, which is an invisible and impalpable body, Sound spreads around the spot where it has been produced, by a movement which is passed on successively from one part of the air to another; and that the spreading of this movement, taking place equally rapidly on all sides, ought to form spherical surfaces ever enlarging and which strike our ears. Now there is no doubt at all that light also comes from the luminous body to our eyes by some movement impressed on the matter which is between the two; since, as we have already seen, it cannot be by the transport of a body which passes from one to the other. If, in addition, light takes time for its passage—which we are now going to examine—it will follow that this movement, impressed on the intervening matter, is successive; and consequently it spreads, as Sound does, by spherical surfaces and waves" (Huygens, p. 5).

"It is true that we are here supposing a strange velocity that would be a hundred thousand times greater than that of Sound. For Sound, according to what I have observed, travels about 180 Toises in the time of one Second, or in about one beat of the pulse. But this supposition ought not to seem to be an impossibility; since it is not a question of the transport of a body with so great a speed, but of a successive movement which is passed on from some bodies to others. I have then made no difficulty, in meditating on these things, in supposing that the emanation of light is accomplished with time, seeing that in this way all its phenomena can be explained, and that in following the contrary opinion everything is incomprehensible. For it has always seemed tome that even Mr. Des Cartes, whose aim has been to treat all the subjects of Physics intelligibly, and who assuredly has succeeded in this better than any one before him, has said nothing that is not full of difficulties, or even inconceivable, in dealing with Light and its properties." (Huygens, p. 7).

"the velocity of Light is more than six hundred thousand times greater than that of Sound. This, however, is quite another thing from being instantaneous, since there is all the difference between a finite thing and an infinite. Now the successive movement of Light being confirmed in this way, it follows, as I have said, that it spreads by spherical waves, like the movement of Sound." (Huygens, p. 10).

Huygens' spherical waves are formed by the motion of an optical ether, composed of matter, yet light propagates in vacuum that is void of matter which contradicts the existence of Huygens' spherical waves. A wave is a mechanical entity that is formed by the motion of a medium, composed of matter (solid, liquid or gas). A force that acting on the medium, composed of matter, produces waves. Air is the medium that forms sound waves that cannot propagate in a vacuum since vacuum is void of air molecules yet Huygens is using a sound wave analogy to represent the propagation of light. One of the most important characteristic of sound is not applicable to light since light propagates in vacuum that is void of matter which is experimental proof Huygens' sound wave analogy is physically invalid.

Huygens is describing the formation of light waves produced by the motion of an Ethereal matter.

"Now if one examines what this matter may be in which the movement coming from the luminous body is propagated, which I call Ethereal matter" (Huygens, p. 11).

"But the extreme velocity of Light, and other properties which it has, cannot admit of such a propagation of motion, and I am about to show here the way in which I conceive it must occur. For this, it is needful to explain the property which hard bodies must possess to transmit movement from one to another." (Huygens, p. 13).

"But it is still certain that this progression of motion is not instantaneous, but successive, and therefore must take time. For if the movement, or the disposition to movement, if you will have it so, did not pass successively through all these spheres, they would all acquire the movement at the same time, and hence would all advance together; which does not happen. For the last one leaves the whole row and acquires the speed of the one which was pushed. Moreover there are experiments which demonstrate that all the bodies which we reckon of the hardest kind, such as quenched steel, glass, and agate, act as springs and bend somehow, not only when extended as rods but also when they are in the form of spheres or of other shapes." (Huygens, p. 13).

"Now in applying this kind of movement to that which produces Light there is nothing to hinder us from estimating the particles of the ether to be of a substance as nearly approaching to perfect hardness and possessing a springiness as prompt as we choose. It is not necessary to examine here the causes of this hardness, or of that springiness, the consideration of which would lead us too far from our subject. I will say, however, in passing that we may conceive that the particles of the ether" (Huygens, p. 14).

"But though we shall ignore the true cause of springiness we still see that there are many bodies which possess this property; and thus there is nothing strange in supposing that it exists also in little invisible bodies like the particles of the Ether. Also if one wishes to seek for any other way in which the movement of Light is successively communicated, one will find none which agrees better, with uniform progression, as seems to be necessary, than the property of springiness; because if this movement should grow slower in proportion as it is shared over a greater quantity of matter, in moving away from the source of the light, it could not conserve this great velocity over great distances. But by supposing springiness in the ethereal matter, its particles will have the property of equally rapid restitution whether they are pushed strongly or feebly; and thus the propagation of Light will always go on with an equal velocity." (Huygens, p. 15).

Huygens describes the Ethereal matter with ether spheres that hardness produces a springiness which transfers light energy through the optical ether, forming light waves yet light propagates through a glass vacuum tube that is void of matter which is experimental proof the propagation of light does not involve an optical ether, composed of matter.

Huygens states optical ether, composed of matter, penetrates glass and exists in vacuum.

"This may be proved by shutting up a sounding body in a glass vessel from which the air is withdrawn by the machine which Mr. Boyle has given us, and with which he has performed so many beautiful experiments. But in doing this of which I speak, care must be taken to place the sounding body on cotton or on feathers, in such a way that it cannot communicate its tremors either to the glass vessel which encloses it, or to the machine; a precaution which has hitherto been neglected. For then after having exhausted all the air one hears no Sound from the metal, though it is struck. One sees here not only that our air, which does not penetrate through glass, is the matter by which Sound spreads; but also that it is not the same air but another kind of matter in which Light spreads; since if the air is removed from the vessel the Light does not cease to traverse it as before. And this last point is demonstrated even more clearly by the celebrated experiment of Torricelli, in which the tube of glass from which the quicksilver has withdrawn itself, remaining void of air, transmits Light just the same as when air is in it. For this proves that a matter different from air exists in this tube, and that this matter must have penetrated the glass or the quicksilver, either one or the other, though they are both impenetrable to the air. And when, in the same experiment, one makes the vacuum after putting a little water above the quicksilver, one concludes equally that the said matter passes through glass or water, or through both." (Huygens, p. 11 & 12).

Huygens' optical ether, composed of matter, propagating through glass would produces a hole, in the glass, or shatter the glass which would eliminate the vacuum. Vacuum is void of matter. Light propagating through a glass vacuum tube proves the propagation of light does not involve light wave or an optical ether.

Huygens represents the propagation of light with partial waves (fig 1).

"There is the further consideration in the emanation of these waves, that each particle of matter in which a wave spreads, ought not to communicate its motion only to the next particle which is in the straight line drawn from the luminous point, but that it also imparts some of it necessarily to all the others which touch it and which oppose themselves to its movement. So it arises that around each particle there is made a wave of which that particle is the centre. Thus if DCF is a wave emanating from the luminous point A, which is its centre, the particle B, one of those comprised within the sphere DCF, will have made its particular or partial wave KCL, which will touch the wave DCF at C at the same moment that the principal wave emanating from the point A has arrived at DCF; and it is clear that it will be only the region C of the wave KCL which will touch the wave DCF, to wit, that which is in the straight line drawn through AB. Similarly the other particles of the sphere DCF, such as bb, dd, etc., will each make its own wave. But each of these waves can be infinitely feeble only as compared with the wave DCF, to the composition of which all the others contribute by the part of their surface which is most distant from the centre A." (Huygens, p. 19).

Huygens' partial waves KCL originate from points b, b, b, along the wave HI. The far points C, C, C, of the partial waves KCL, are used to construct the wave DCF which represents Huygens' wave propagation mechanism of light. The sun, a light bulb or candle flame are physical light source that emit light energy. Huygens' wave HI is arbitrary creating energy (partial waves), away from the light source, which violates energy conservation. In addition, only the far points C, C, C, of the partial waves, are used to construct the wave DCF, the partial waves' structures between K and C, and between C and L are destroyed, after the wave DCF is constructed which violates energy conservation.

Huygens describes the transmission and reflection effects of light (fig 2 & 3) using spherical waves generated by the transmission and reflection surface.

If one considers further the other pieces H of the wave AC, it appears that they will not only have reached the surface AB by straight lines HK parallel to CB, but that in addition they will have generated in the transparent air, from the centres K, K, K, particular spherical waves, represented here by circumferences the semi-diameters of which are equal to KM, that is to say to the continuations of HK as far as the line BG parallel to AC. (Huygens, p. 24).

Huygens' spherical waves originate from points K, K, K, along the transmission and reflection surface AB. The far points of the spherical waves are used to construct the transmission and reflection waves NB. The generation of spherical waves, by the transmission and reflection surface, represents the arbitrary creation of energy that violates energy conservation. In addition, the spherical waves, that are used to construct the transmission and reflection waves have varying circumferences which would form an inconsistent amplitudes along the transmission and reflection wave fronts that conflicts with Huygens' propagation mechanism that describes the construction of the wave DCF, using identical circumference partial waves.

§ 3. Fresnel

In Fresnel's paper, "Memorie su la Diffraction de la Lumiere" (1819), Fresnel describes light waves formed by the vibration of the elastic fluid (ether), based on Huygens' principle.

"21. If we call λ the length of a light-wave, that is to say, the distance between two points in the ether where vibrations of the same kind are occurring at the same time" (Fresnel, § 21).

"Admitting that light consists in vibrations of the ether similar to sound-waves, we can easily account for the inflection of rays of light at sensible distances from the diffraction body." (Fresnel, § 33).

"APPLICATIONS OF HUYGENS'S PRINCIPLE TO THE PHENOMENA OF DIFFRACTION

43. Having determined the resultant of any number of trains of light-waves. I shall now show how by the aid of these interference formulae and by the principle of Huygens alone it is possible to explain, and even to compute, all the phenomena of diffraction. This principle, which I consider as a rigorous deduction from the basal hypothesis, may be expressed thus: The vibrations at each point in the wave-front may be considered as the sum of the elementary motions which at any one instant are sent to that point from all parts of this same wave in any one of its pervious* positions, each of these parts acting independently the one of the other. It follows from the principle of the superposition of small motions that the vibrations produced at any point in an elastic fluid" (Fresnel, § 43).

Fresnel's diffraction mechanism of light is based on light-waves formed by the vibration of an elastic fluid (optical ether) yet diffraction forms in vacuum that is void of an elastic fluid, composed of matter (fluid). A wave is a mechanical entity that requires a medium, composed of matter, yet light propagates in vacuum that is void of matter which proves Fresnel's diffraction mechanism based on propagating light waves is physically invalid.

Fresnel describes diffraction using interfering light waves that resultant amplitudes are used to form the intensity and dark fringes of the diffraction pattern (fig 4).

"In order to compute the total effect, I refer these partial resultants to the wave emitted by the point M on the straight line CP, and to another wave displaced a quarter of a wave-length with reference to the preceding. This is the process already employed (p. 101) in the general solution of the interference problem. We shall consider only a section of the wave made by the plane perpendicular to the edge of the screen, and shall indicate by dz an element, nn', of the primary wave, and by z its distance from the point M. These, as I have shown, suffice to determine the position and the relative intensities of the bright and dark bands." (Fresnel, § 53).

Fresnel's wave AMI forms expanding secondary waves, at the diffraction object. The expanding spherical waves propagate to the diffraction screen and interfere, forming the diffraction pattern. The sun, a candle flame or a light bulb are light sources that emit light energy. The formation of expanding secondary waves, from points along the wave AMI, represents the arbitrary generation of energy (expanding spherical waves), away from the light source, which violates energy conservation.

Fresnel derives a diffraction intensity equation by summating the interfereing light waves' amplitudes, at the diffraction screen, using a line integral.

"Hence the intensity of the vibration at P resulting from all these small disturbances is

{ [ ʃ dz cos (π z2 (a + b) / abλ) ]2 + [ ʃ dz sin (π z2 (a + b) / abλ)]2 }1/2 "..................................1

(Fresnel, § 53). Fresnel is using a line integral to summate the interfering light waves' amplitudes, at the diffraction screen, but a line integral (ʃ dz) represents the length of the wave AMI using the interval dz. Fresnel is using the line integral to summate the interfering light waves amplitudes, at the diffraction screen, which is mathematically invalid and proves Fresnel's derivation of the diffraction intensity equation of light is mathematically invalid.

During the diffraction effect, as time increases, the crests and nodes, of the propagating light waves, propagate in the forward direction. At a point P on the diffraction screen, the propagating light waves' amplitudes oscillate, forming a resultant amplitude of zero, which would eliminate the interference effect and proves Fresnel's derivation of the diffraction intensity equation of light (equ 7), based on interfering light waves' amplitudes, is physically invalid. In addition, Fresnel's light waves' amplitudes that form the intensity (energy) of the diffraction pattern represents a light energy that is dependent on the wave amplitude which conflicts with Lenard's photoelectric effect that proves light is composed of particles that energy is dependent on only the frequency (Lenard, Intro). Lenard's photoelectric effect proves Fresnel's diffraction mechanism is physically invalid. Lenard proves the wave theory of light is physically invalid.

A small circular aperture's diffraction pattern (fig 6) is formed by the constructive and destructive interference of the light waves' amplitudes but the destructive interference of Fresnel's light waves' amplitudes would result in a measureable reduction in the total light intensity of the diffraction pattern since the destroyed light waves' amplitudes (intensities) do not contribute to the total light intensity of the diffraction pattern yet, experimentally, more than 10%, of the diffraction pattern is composed of dark areas which would result in at least a 10% reduction of the total light intensity of the diffraction pattern yet the total light intensity, that enters the small circular aperture (dt = 1s), equals the total light intensity that forms the diffraction pattern (dt = 1s) which proves the aperture diffraction effect of light is not formed by wave interference.

§ 4. Maxwell

In Maxwell's paper, "On Physical Lines of Force" (1861), Maxwell describes a varying electric current formed in a dielectric.

"The effect of this action on the dielectric mass is to produce a general displacement of the electricity in a certain direction. This displacement does not amount to a current, because when it has attained a certain value it remains constant, but it is the commencement of a current, and its variations constitute currents in the positive or negative direction, according as the displacement is increasing or diminishing. The amount of the displacement depends on the nature of the body, and on the electromotive force; so that if h is the displacement, R the electromotive force, and E a coefficient depending of the nature of the dielectric,

R = - 4π E2 h,........................2

and if r is the value of the electric current due to displacement,

r = dh/dt"..................................3

(Maxwell, Part III). Maxwell's varying electric current (equ 3) is formed by the displacement of a dielectric.

In Maxwell's paper, "Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field" (1864), Maxwell's describes an electromagnetic theory of light based on Ampere's law.

"ON ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION" (Maxwell, Part II).

"If, therefore, the phenomena described by Faraday in the Ninth Series of his Experimental Researches were the only known facts about electric currents, the laws of Ampere relating to the attraction of conductors carrying currents as well as those of Faraday about the mutual induction of currents, might be deduced by mechanical reasoning." (Maxwell, Part II).

"ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY OF LIGHT" (Maxwell, Part VI).

"We then examine electromagnetic phenomena, seeking for their explanation in the properties of the field which surrounds the electrified or magnetic bodies." (Maxwell, Part VI).

Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light is based on Faraday's induction experiment that is not luminous; consequently, Poynting (1884) supports Maxwell's theory by deriving an electromagnetic energy equation of light but Poynting's current wire, that forms the electric and magnetic fields of Poynting's energy equation, is not emitting light; consequently, Poynting's energy equation of light cannot be used to justify Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light. Hertz's (1887) attempts to structurally unite light with induction, using a spark gap experiment, that emits light and the radio induction effect, but Hertz's spark gap emits electrons yet Faraday's induction effect is not an ionization effect which is experimental proof light is not an electromagnetic phenomenon. Planck (1901) and Einstein (1905) uses the blackbody radiation effect, that emits light and the radio induction effect (Planck, Part I), (Einstein1, § 4), to structurally unite light with induction, by deriving energy equations that are used to represent the blackbody emissions but the blackbody also emits electrons.

To receive or detect these oscillations, Hertz used a small loop of wire with the ends not touching. By changing the distance between the spheres, Hertz tuned the generator (or transmitter) until its frequency exactly equaled the natural frequency of the receiving loop. When he did this, he found that a spark jumped across the ends of his receiving loop whenever his transmitting oscillator was operating. With these simple devices, which were the precursors of our modern radio transmitters and radio receivers, Hertz demonstrated that the electromagnetic waves he generated were qualitatively the same as light. One of his most serious concerns was to show that his electromagnetic waves travel through a vacuum at the same speed as light, and when he did this, he was completely convinced that Maxwell's electromagnetic waves and light are identical. When he reproduced such phenomena as reflection, refraction, diffraction, and interference, his work was taken as the definitive experimental proof of Maxwell's theory." (Motz and Weaver, Chapter 15).

"Maxwell's electrodynamics proceeds in the same unusual way already analyzed in studying his electrostatics. Under the influence of hypotheses which remain vague and undefined in his mind, Maxwell sketches a theory which he never completes, he does not even bother to remove contradictions from it; then he starts changing this theory, he imposes on it essential modifications which he does not notify to his reader; the latter tries in vain to fix the fugitive and intangible thought of the author; just when he thinks he has got it, even the parts of the doctrine dealing with the best studied phenomena are seen to vanish. And yet this strange and disconcerting method led Maxwell to the electromagnetic theory of light!" (Duhem, 1902).

Maxwell's electric current is formed within a dielectric of a varying capacitor.

"PART V. — THEORY OF CONDENSERS.

Capacity of a Condenser.

(83) The simplest form of condenser consists of a uniform layer of insulating matter bounded by two conducting surfaces, and its capacity is measured by the quantity of electricity on either surface when the difference of potentials is unity.

Let S be the area of either surface, a the thickness of the dielectric, and k its coefficient of electric elasticity; then on one side of the condenser the potential is Y1 and on the other side Y1 + 1, and within its substance" (Maxwell, Part V).

"(85) When the dielectric of which the condenser is formed is not a perfect insulator, the phenomena of conduction are combined with those of electric displacement. The condenser, when left charged, gradually loses its charge, and in some cases, after being discharged completely, it gradually acquires a new charge of the same sign as the original charge, and this finally disappears. These phenomena have been described by Professor Faraday (Experimental Researches, Series XI.) and by Mr. F. Jenkin (Report of Committee of Board of Trade on Submarine Cables), and may be classed under the name of "Electric Absorption." (Maxwell, Part V).

Maxwell's varying capacitor induction effect is formed by an electric current, formed within a dielectric.

Maxwell's electric current is formed by the displacement of the molecules of the dielectric.

"In a dielectric under the action of electromotive force, we may conceive that the electricity in each molecule is so displaced that one side is rendered positively and the other negatively electrical, but that the electricity remains entirely connected with the molecule, and does not pass from one molecule to another. The effect of this action on the whole dielectric mass is to produce a general displacement of electricity in a certain direction. This displacement does not amount to a current, because when it has attained to a certain value it remains constant, but it is the commencement of a current, and its variations constitute currents in the positive or the negative direction according as the displacement is increasing or decreasing. In the interior of the dielectric there is no indication of electrification, because the electrification of the surface of any molecule is neutralized by the opposite electrification of the surface of the molecules in contact with it; but at the bounding surface of the dielectric, where the electrification is not neutralized, we find the phenomena which indicate positive or negative electrification.

The relation between the electromotive force and the amount of electric displacement it produces depends on the nature of the dielectric, the same electromotive force producing generally a greater electric displacement in solid dielectrics, such as glass or sulphur, than in air." (Maxwell, Part I).

The varying current implies the vary capacitor induction effect is forming the electric current displacement within a dielectric. Maxwell states the motion of the dielectric, such as glass, sulphur or air, forms the electric current yet when the dielectric is replaced with vacuum, the varying capacitor induction effect is produced which is experimental proof the varying capacitor induction effect is not formed by an electric current since the electric current is formed by the motion of the molecules of the dielectric that is composed of matter (solid, liquid or gas).

Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction experiment and Maxwell's electric current.

"Equations of Magnetic Force.

uα' = dH/dy - dG/dz............................................4

uβ' = dF/dz - dH/dx.............................................5

uλ' = dG/dx - dF/dy.............................................6

Equations of Currents...

dλ/dy - dβ/dz = 4πp'............................................7

dα/dz - dλ/dx = 4πq'............................................8

dβ/dx - dα/dy = 4πr'............................................9

We may call these the Equations of Currents." (Maxwell, part III).

Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction experiment that is not luminous. In addition, Maxwell's electric current is formed by the motion of the molecules of a dielectric yet light propagates in vacuum that is void of a dielectric, composed of matter, which proves Maxwell's electric fields do not physically exist; consequently, Maxwell's equations cannot be used to represent the structure, energy or effects of light.

Maxwell states the optical aether, composed of matter, exists within Geissler's glass vacuum tube.

"It may be filled with any kind of matter, or we may endeavour to render it empty of all gross matter, as in the case of Geissler’s tubes and other so called vacua. There is always, however, enough of matter left to receive and transmit the undulations of light and heat, and it is because the transmission of these radiations is not greatly altered when transparent bodies of measurable density are substituted for the so-called vacuum, that we are obliged to admit that the undulations are those of an ethereal substance, and not of the gross matter, the presence of which merely modifies in some way the motion of the ether." (Maxwell, Intro).

Maxwell is stating that the optical ether, composed of matter, exists within a glass vacuum tube but vacuum is void of matter. Light propagating through a glass vacuum tube is experimental proof the propagation of light does not involve an ether or light waves.

Maxwell's states that the electric field is the optical ether that motion forms transverse light waves.

"(100) The equations of the electromagnetic field, deduced from purely experimental evidence, show that transversal vibrations only can be propagated. If we were to go beyond our experimental knowledge and to assign a definite density to a substance which we should call the electric fluid, and select either vitreous or resinous electricity as the representative of that fluid, then we might have normal vibrations propagated with a velocity depending on this density. We have, however, no evidence as to the density of electricity, as we do not even know whether to consider vitreous electricity as a substance or as the absence of a substance.

Hence electromagnetic science leads to exactly the same conclusions as optical science with respect to the direction of the disturbances which can be propagated through the field; both affirm the propagation of transverse vibrations, and both give the same velocity of propagation. On the other hand, both sciences are at a loss when called on to affirm or deny the existence of normal vibrations." (Maxwell, Part VI).

Maxwell's electric current is formed by the motion of the molecules of a dielectric, composed of matter, yet light propagates in vacuum that is void of matter which is experimental proof Maxwell's electric field does not physically exist; consequently, Maxwell's electric field cannot be used to represent the optical ether.

"More artificial theories have been tried out, assuming that the real truth lies somewhere between these two limiting cases: that the ether is only partially carried by the moving bodies. But they all failed! Every attempt to explain the electromagnetic phenomena in moving CS with the help of the motion of the ether, motion through the ether, or both these motions, proved unsuccessful. Thus arose one of the most dramatic situations in the history of science. All assumptions concerning ether led nowhere! The experimental verdict was always negative." (Weaver, p. 145).

Maxwell represents polarization using transverse waves formed by the motion of the elastic medium.

"(91) At the commencement of this paper we made use of the optical hypothesis of an elastic medium through which the vibrations of light are propagated" (Maxwell, part VI).

"the disturbance at any point is transverse to the direction of propagation, and such waves may have all the properties of polarized light." (Maxwell, part VI).

Polarized light propagates in vacuum that is void of an elastic medium, composed of matter, which contradicts the existence of Maxwell's transverse light waves that are used to represent polarization. In addition, a transverse wave is a surface wave that cannot form within a volume since a disturbance within a volume represents a spherical wave that forms a longitudinal wave.

Maxwell derives a wave propagation equation of light using Maxwell's equations.

"(93) If we combine the equations of Magnetic Force (B) with those of Electric Currents (C)...........

Absolute Values of the Electromotive and Magnetic Forces called into play in the Propagation of Light.

(108) If the equation of propagation of light is

F = A cos [(2π/λ)(z - Vt)]"...................................................10

(Maxwell, Part VI). The optical ether, composed of matter, produces a motion that forms Maxwell's propagating light waves, represented with equation 10, but the optical ether, composed of matter, does not physically exist (vacuum). Also, Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction experiment that is not luminous; consequently, the propagating equation of light (equ 10), derived using Maxwell's equation, cannot be used to represent the propagation of light. Furthermore, Maxwell's equations represent a spherical wave that forms a longitudinal wave which conflicts with Maxwell's transverse waves.

§ 5. Michelson

In Michelson's paper, "The Relative Motion of the Earth and the Lumiferous Ether" (1881), Michelson tests for Fresnel's optical ether, composed of matter (Fresnel, § 43), (Huygens, p. 14). Fresnel's optical ether is composed of matter since Fresnel refers to Huygens' principle that is based on light wave formed by the of an optical ether, composed of matter, that hardness forms a springiness that transfers the light energy, via light waves, through the ether.

"The undulatory theory of light assumes the existence of a medium called the ether, whose vibrations produce the phenomena of heat and light, and which is supposed to fill all space. According to Fresnel, the ether, which is enclosed in optical media, partakes of the motion of these media, to an extent depending on their indices of refraction. For air, this motion would be but a small fraction of that of the air itself and will be neglected." (Michelson, p. 120).

"Assuming then that the ether is at rest, the earth moving through it, the time required for light to pass from one point to another on the earth's surface, would depend on the direction in which it travels." (Michelson, p. 120).

Michelson-Morley experiment is also testing form Fresnel's optical ether, composed of matter.

'On the undulatory theory, according to Fresnel, first, the ether is supposed to be at rest except in the interior of transparent media, in which secondly, it is supposed to move with a velocity less than the velocity of the medium " (Michelson-Morley, p. 334).

The incident light beam, of Michelson's experiment, is split into two light rays. One light ray propagates parallel to the direction of the ether wind (drift). The second light ray propagates perpendicular to the ether drift. Both light rays propagate towards two separate mirrors then are reflected back and recombined to form an interference pattern. Rotating Michelson's experimental apparatus does not affect the diffraction pattern which represents the negative result of Michelson's experiment but both light rays are propagating towards and away form the mirrors which cancels the test of the ether drift. In Michelson-Morley experiment (1887), multiple reflections are used to conceal the cancelation problem but the total distances both light rays propagate towards and away from the mirrors, in Michelson-Morley experiment, are equal which also cancels the test of the ether drift. Furthermore, Michelson's and Michelson-Morley experiments are unnecessary since light propagating in vacuum is definitive and irreversible experimental proof Fresnel's, optical ether, composed of matter (elastic fluid), does not physically exist.

§ 6. Kirchhoff

In Fresnel's diffraction mechanism, spherical waves form in the aperture and propagate to the diffraction screen forming the interference pattern but Fresnel's spherical waves form retrogressive waves that would produce an diffraction pattern in the backwards direction yet the retrogressive diffraction pattern is not experimentally observed which proves Fresnel's diffraction mechanism of light is physically invalid.

"10-4. Defects of Fresnel's Theory...

3. To these difficulties regarding the nature of the secondary sources there is added the difficulty of explaining the existence of the obliquity factor and, in particular, why the sources do not radiate backwards....In addition, one can easily "forget" the backwave." (Longhurst, p. 188).

The diffraction effect of light described using spherical waves would produce a retrogressive wave that would propagate in the reverse direction but the retrogressive wave is not experimentally observed which is experimental proof Fresnel's diffraction mechanism is physically invalid.

In Kirchhoff's formulation of Huygens' Principle (1883), Kirchhoff eliminates the retrogressive wave, using Green's theorem,

"8.3 Kirchhoff's diffraction theory

8.3.1 The integral theorem of Kirchhoff

The basic idea of the Huygens-Fresnel theory is that the light disturbance at a point P arises from the superposition of secondary waves that proceed from a surface situated between this point and the light wource. This idea was put on a sounder mathematical basis by Kirchhoff†....................If U' is any other function which satisfies the same continuity requirements as U, we have by Green's theorem" (Born and Wolf, p. 417-418).

"∭(ψ2∇2ψ1 - ψ1∇2ψ2)dV = ∬(ψ2[dψ1/dn] - ψ1[dψ2/dn])dS:..............................11

(Longhurst, p. 190). In Green's theorem (equ 11), the volume integralis equated to the surface integral which is physically invalid and proves Kirchhoff's elimination of the retrogressive wave using Green's theorem is physically and mathematically invalid.

Kirchhoff uses equation 29 to derive an obliquity factor that is used to eliminates the retrogressive wave formed by a spherical wave,

"10-7. Application to Spherical Waves

Equation (10-15) was derived for a surface S which enclosed the point P but not the source (since it was assumed in applying Green's theorem that ψ remains finite throughout the volume of integration). It can be shown that the same result follows if S encloses the source but not the point P. Thus in the case of a single point source the closed surface S may be taken as a spherical wavefront." (Longhurst, p. 192).

"1. The integrand includes an obliquity factor 1/2(1 + cos θ) which is unity in the forward direction (θ = 0) and zero in the reverse direction (θ = π). The amplitude factor a/λ is also present as was seen to be necessary." (Longhurst, p. 193).

Kirchhoff is mathematically eliminating the unwanted structure of the retrogressive wave that propagates in the reverse (backwards) direction, using Green's theorem, but a spherical wave has a radial structure that forms a retrogressive wave which proves Kirchhoff's mathematical elimination of the retrogressive wave, using Green's Theorem is invalid.

=
============================

Lenard's photoelectric effect proves light is composed of particles which conflicts with the continuity of Maxwell's electromagnetic field; consequently, water wave analogy is used to justify the continuity of Maxwell's theory since discrete wave molecules form continuous water waves that form wave interference.

"How can a particle perspective account for the interference pattern shown in Figure 4.8? At first blush you might make the following suggestion. Water is composed of H2O molecules--the "particles" of water. Nevertheless, when a lot of these molecules stream along with one another they can produce water waves, with the attendant interference properties illustrated in Figure 4.7. And so, it might seem reasonable to guess that wave properties, such as interference patterns, can arise from a particle picture of light produced a huge number of photons, the particles of light are involved." (Greene, p. 101).

"Think of waves on the surface of water. Here we can describe two entirely different things. Either we may observe how the undulatory surface forming the boundary between water and air alters in the course of time; or else — with the help of small floats, for instance — we can observe how the position of the separate particles of water alters in the course of time. If the existence of such floats for tracking the motion of the particles of a fluid were a fundamental impossibility in physics — if, in fact, nothing else whatever were observable than the shape of the space occupied by the water as it varies in time, we should have no ground for the assumption that water consists of movable particles. But all the same we could characterise it as a medium." (Einstein, Lecture 1920).

The water wave analogy is used to justify light particles forming light waves since discrete water molecules, in a small container, produces water waves but when the water, in the container, is poured out and falls 2000 m, the original water waves are not formed by the falling water droplet. After a light beam, propagates a distant of 3000 meters, empty spaces would form between light particles which would eliminate the interaction of light particles required in forming a light wave; consequently, the water wave analogy cannot be applied to light; consequently, Planck and Einstein use a thermodynamic analogy to justify light particles forming interfering light waves since air forms sound waves but sound waves are formed by the transfer of the kinetic energies of the air molecules yet light particles, in a light beam, do not exchange kinetic energies since light propagates at a constant velocity. Furthermore, air, that forms sound waves, produces a longitudinal wave that conflicts the Maxwell's transverse waves. Lenard's photoelectric effect proves Maxwell's theory is physically invalid.

"Heisenberg wrote in (1929), that "the existence of the electron" is as unintelligible to the wave mechanical theory as the "existence of the light quantum" to Maxwell's theory." (Miller, p. 18).

--