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 ABL:ablative AG/INST:agentive-instrumental AGT:agent AND:andative CAUS:causative CONT:continuative-iterative DAT:dative DECL:declarative DEP:dependent clause marker DIR1:directional DIR2:directional DST:distal DSTR:distributive DUR:durative HSY1:hearsay evidential HSY2:hearsay evidential IMP:imperative IMPFV:imperfective IN:inessive IN2:second inessive INCP:inceptive INFR1:inferential evidential INFR2:inferential evidential INST:instrumental INTR:intransitive JXT:juxtapositive MPSV:mediopassive NEC:necessitative NEG:negative NEW:new topic (switch-reference marker) NOML:nominalizer PAT:patient PHAB:past habitual PNCT:punctual PST1:past PST2:completed past SAME: same topic as previous clause (switch-reference marker) SEM:semelfactive TERM:terminative 3R:third person coreferential pronoun  Not to be confused with Yuki language (Bolivia).

The Yuki language, also spelled Ukiah and also known as Ukomno'm, was a language of California, spoken by the indigenous American Yuki people, formerly in the Eel River area, the Round Valley Reservation, northern California . It is a level 9 dormant language of the Yukon language family, and became extinct some time in the 20th century, when the last speaker, Arthur Anderson, passed away in the 1980s. Yuki is generally thought to be distantly related to the Wappo language.

Yuki consisted of three dialects: Northern Yuki (Round Valley Yuki), Coast Yuki, and Huchnom (Clear Lake Yuki). These were at least partially mutually intelligible, but are sometimes counted as distinct languages.

Yuki had an octal (base-8) counting system, as the Yuki keep count by using the four spaces between their fingers rather than the fingers themselves. Yuki also had an extensive vocabulary for the plants of Mendocino County, California.

An extensive reference grammar of Yuki ,Yuki Grammar, was published in 2016 and is based primarily on the texts and other notes recorded by Alfred L. Kroeber from Yuki speaker Ralph Moore in the first decade of the 20th century as well as elicited material recorded from other speakers later in the 20th century. Yuki grammar was authored by Uldis Balodis and often references previous analysis on Yuki by linguists Jess Sawyer and Alice Schlichter, who wrote Yuki Vocabulary, as well as the work done by linguist William Elmendorf. This grammar also contains sketches of Huchnom and Coast Yuki based on the notes of Sydney Lamb and John Peabody Harrington, respectively.

Note: I will be using the existing page's infobox.

Vowels
Yuki has five basic vowel phonemes: /a/, /ą/, /i/, /o/, and /u/. /i/ is sometimes pronounced as [e] due to vowel height harmony, but does not affect the meaning of the word it is in. For example, mipán and m[e]pán both mean foot.

Vowel length is only very marginally phonemic. /ą/ is nasalized phonemically, and the other vowels are nasalized when they are next to the nasal consonants /m/, /m'/, /n/, /n'/, or when they come before [w]. In some cases, the vowels are nasalized before glottal stops.

Diphthongs
Diphthongs in Yuki result from phonetic combinations of vowels with [j] or [w]. An example is ṭ’ąw, meaning ‘war’.

Consonants
Yuki has 25 consonants, around half of which are glottalized. For the stops and affricates, Balodis notes that the aspirations and voicing do not contrast.

Syllable structure
In Yuki, vowels, glottalized consonants, or /s’/ do not function as onsets. On the other hand, words cannot end with /č’/, and ending with glottal stops are rare. Syllable structures allowed in Yuki include CV, which is uncommon to be a word on its own, CVC, and CVCC. Combinations of these units can occur, but coda consonant clusters are only allowed word-finally. Non-final syllables thus consists of CV(C) patterns. Examples of these structures include the following:

Stress
Yuki contains predictable, non-contrastive stress. Typically, the first syllable of a root word is stressed and has a high pitch, regardless of affixation. If present, secondary stress is at the same or lower pitch than the primary stress, usually on the penult or on a prefix. Affixation does not affect stress placement.

Primary Stress
The primary stress here falls on /a/ of the root, 'left'.

Secondary Stress
The secondary stress in the following example falls on the penultimate syllable.

The secondary stress is on the prefix, 'ną-', which refers to the mouth.

Tones
There is some consensus that Yuki is a tonal language, but the number of defined tones range from four to five: high, middle, low, falling, and dropping. Baldis notes that the five tones were originally identified by Hans Uldall, a phonetician, before Kroeber proposed that the dropping and falling tones were the same.

Pitch accent
According to Elmendorf, pitch accents of Yuki are high, low, and falling. According to Schlichter, pitch accents of Yuki accompany stress, with high and mid variants. High pitches accompany primary stress. Low pitches are thought to occur at the end of a sentence without an accent. Falling pitches are associated with glottal stops, such as in ˀuˀuk, meaning ‘water’.

Morphology
In Yuki, the root word always comes first, regardless of lexical category. It is an agglutinating language with most words containing four or fewer morphemes. Prefixation in Yuki is extremely rare. Examples of prefixes include those that indicate ownership, such as body parts. Affixation primarily occurs through suffixation.

Nouns
There are two categories of nouns in Yuki, human and non-human. Human nouns are for people and nouns with human characteristics, such as the mythical figures that recur throughout Yuki texts, Taykómol, the 'Creator', and Coyote, the 'Unstable assistant'. Non-human nouns include inanimate objects and animals. Nouns in Yuki have derivational and inflectional morphology, often through the attachment of case enclitics. Proper nouns are not distinguished separately from nouns.

Derivational morphemes
Derivational morphemes on nouns include instrumental and locational markers, nominalizers, and diminutives.

Cases
Derivational case marking includes instrumental and locative cases.

Instrumental Case
The clitic, -ok, is attached to the end of nouns to convey the use of an inanimate object. In the following example, it used to say that some animals came into contact with fire and experienced burns as a result.

Locative Case
Locative cases in Yuki are enclitics attached to the root of non-human nouns. Case endings can be used with each other, such as the allative (=wič) and the lative case (=op) in the following.

Some cases have similar meanings, such as =wit and =k’il, which mean 'to' or 'toward', but they have are each used in different contexts. =wit is used to convey movement toward general directions, such as North, South, West, East, or large landmarks. On the other hand,=k’il conveys movement toward more specific objects and locations. The various locative cases in Yuki are detailed in the table below:

Nominalizer
Nominalizers -am and -lam are attached to the roots of adjectives or verbs to pluralize certain nouns. In this example, -am attaches to ˀolwis, meaning old, to convey that there are numerous old people that are being referred to.

-lam is an allomorph to -am. In this example, the addition of -lam conveys that there are multiple houses distributed amongst the group of people.

Diminutive
The suffix, '-ič' serves to change the meaning of a word into simpler components. Here, 'blood', 'ˀąs', comes to mean 'red' with the addition of '-ič' :

Verbalization
The attachment of verb morphemes to certain nouns converts them into verbs. In this example, the noun, hąwąy (food) comes to mean 'eating' after the addition of a continuative-iterative marker, an imperfective marker, and a finite marker.

Additionally, there are a few nouns that can be used as verbs by itself, such as kopwok, meaning 'feather dance'.

=kič
The enclitic, =kič, meaning 'only', is categorized as a derivational morpheme due to the lack of a more suitable category in Yuki. Here, it is attached to 'obsidian' to convey 'nothing but obsidian'.

Inflectional morphemes
Inflectional morphemes found on nouns include core case and specific number markings.

Cases
Core cases in Yuki include agent, patient, and dative cases.

Agent case
The agent case, -Ø, does not appear on nouns, but do appear on pronouns. In a given phrase, agents are always the one doing an action on something else. This is described as having control. The following example shows agent marking on the pronoun, 'I':

Patient case
Patients are indicated with the attachment of '=ą'. Patients can be the doers or the receivers of an action, usually dealing with human processes, physical or emotional. If there is both a doer and a receiver present in a phrase, the patient case goes on the receiver of the action.

When human nouns are the subjects of a sentence, they are marked with patient case. Non-human nouns lack patient case even when they are subjects of a sentence, though there are some instances in which animals have patient cases.

sąˀ-ˀi ˀut’=mil taykomol=ą The receiver, Taykómol, is marked with a patient case.

Dative case
Datives are indicated with the attachment of '=ąt', and are objects of a phrase that has multiple receivers. For a dative first person reference, 'I', 'ˀit' is used.

Here, 'him' is marked with a dative case.

Number
Number suffixes occur on people: man, woman, and girl, used to either indicate singularity or plurality. The singular suffix is -p, and the plural suffix is -s. For example, 'man' is 'ˀiwop', while 'men' is 'ˀiwis'.

Verbs
Any morpheme that attaches to a verb is a suffix or an enclitic that comes after the root, with the exception of body prefixes. Verb morphemes can be used to verbalize words of other lexical categories. For example, woknám, meaning ‘initiation’, can be converted into a verb with the attachment of -espaˀ, to mean ‘(they) shall make initiation’.

Derivational morphemes
Derivational verb morphology of Yuki includes numerous suffixes and nominalization.

Verbal Derivational Suffixes
Derivational verb suffixes of Yuki include intransitive, transitive, mediopassive, causative, continuative-iterative, and those specifying direction or movement (andative and directional).

Nominalization
The suffix, -(m)ol', serves to create agents or objects from verbs. In the following example, the verb, 'stay', is converted into 'stayer'.

Inflectional morphemes
Inflectional verb morphology of Yuki comprises of tense, aspect, mood, and evidentiality.

Tense
There are four types of tense in Yuki: past, completed past, and future, and finite, examples of each are shown below. The finite enclitic, =mil, attaches onto a finite verb, and was used often in texts of Yuki mythology to indicate an event that took sometime in the obscure past. However, recordings of actual speakers showed a preference for the past tense suffixes instead of the finite enclitic.

The past and completed past tense are distinguished by the context they are respectively used in. The past tense indicates events without specified closure, and lack relativizers such as kiˀ, which tend to succeed the completed past tense.

Aspect
The different aspects in Yuki are inchoative, inceptive, durative, punctual, which indicates immediate, instantaneous actions, semelfactive, progressive, perfective, imperfective, and past habitual. In Yuki, inceptive aspects can either indicate an action that is going to happen, or can be used to note the beginning of consecutive actions. The past habitual aspect indicates an action that used to take place. The glottalization, ’ is at times omitted from text. Balodis, notes that the -l perfective aspect is not clear from collected material, but is categorized as such by Schlicter.

Mood
Yuki has the following moods: declarative, imperative, interrogative, necessitative, permissive, speculative, and negative, which serves to negate the verb it affects.

Evidentiality
Evidentials in Yuki include two different types of hearsay evidentials (HSY1 and HSY2) and two different types of inferential evidentials (INFR1 and INFR2). The first type of hearsay evidential is seen in text as one of the following:=ˀi ~ ˀi: ~ ˀiy ~ ˀey, and conveys that the person speaking lacks prior knowledge. An example of =ˀi usage is bolded below.

The second type of hearsay evidential is -sik, which conveys the concept of 'I hear' or 'they say'. In the following example, the agent 'learns [that he is] to go', the act of learning being evidential.

However, some verbs with this suffix lack evidentiality in Kroeber's texts, as shown below.

The first type of inferential evidential is =hąli, and implies assumptions in a phrase. It is used in the following example to convey that it looked as though the person 'touched it'.

The second type of inferential evidential is šiloˀ. It is noted that it appears in both enclitic and suffix forms, modifying the verb it attaches to by adding the inferential connotation.

Adjectives
There are two types of adjectives in Yuki: attributive and predicate. Attributive adjectives are found directly before or after a noun in a noun phrase, and act as nouns on their own. In the following example, the noun, 'rain', comes before the adjective, 'big'. t’um hoṭ kiˀ t’um=k

The following is an example of a noun phrase in which the noun, man, comes after the adjective, large.

Predicate adjectives act as verbs on their own, and contain verb morphemes. This is shown in the following example, where 'bad', with the attachment of =mil, the finite enclitic, means 'was unsatisfactory'.

Adverbs
In Yuki, adverbs convey the time or manner of a verb. Certain adjectives without their nominalizers can serve as adverbs.

Here, the adjective root 'small' works as an adverb to modify the verb, 'shone'.

Morphological processes
Yuki makes use of compounding, reduplication, and infixation.

Compounding
ˀuk’ (water) + hoṭ (large) = ˀuk’-hoṭ (ocean)

Reduplication
Infixation occurs with reduplication with the diminutive, -ˀV-. In the following example, a glottal stop along with a reduplicated /a/ is inserted into sak, meaning 'child', to form saˀak, meaning 'baby'. sak (child) => saˀak (baby)

Prefixation
The rare instances of prefixation in Yuki occurs on some kinship nouns--a type of human noun that indicate possession. These prefixes are specific to perspective and plurality.

Another example of prefixation are the body prefixes, detailed below.

Syntax
Yuki typically has a verb-final word order. Examples include:

Agent-Patient-Verb

Patient-Agent-Verb

Agent-Verb

Patient-Verb

Exceptions to this verb-final word order include phrases with complementizers, in which the agent or the patient comes after the verb, as seen below.

Some adverbial phrases are also found to not follow the verb-final word order. In the following example, the verb, 'dance/sing' does not come at the end of the phrase.