User:Swimmaaj/sandbox

Good evaluation AJ, but needs more details. For example, which specific sentences made you think of an advertisement?

Reference 4 is a journal article so probably peer reviewed. What information do you think should be added?

Also, for the sentence and citation added to Snap Freezing- is this different from what was described as Scientific use- quick freezing usually in liquid nitrogen? Seems your addition was an example of how it is used for chemical analysis, but it doesn't belong to an encyclopedia type description of the technology.

Article Evaluation,3/14/18

Optical sorting:

The article had certain sentences that reflected an advertisement, as well as, the citations were not properly recorded. For example, it explains how with optical sorting you will need to buy a lot of equipment, which is soliciting for certain companies that consist of all this equipment

In regards to reference 4, information about the C-support vector machine should be discussed.

The article is neutral, describing the various technologies that are used within food science

This article discusses various sensors and equipment used in sorting in an effective manor, yet some paragraphs lack citations. As well, it over presents those that are

The information in this article is coming from peer reviewed articles and journals

Not all the facts and paragraphs include proper citations.

This article is under the wikiphysics section, in which people are talking about theories related to physics

We have not talked about sorting in class, but it definitely relates to the food industry.

Gulcan 2017: [null Performance evaluation of optical sorting in mineral processing – A case study with quartz, magnesite, hematite, lignite, copper and gold ores]

visible light responsive sensor mounted optical sorter (VIS sorter) can be used in food/mineral analysis

GROUP ARTICLE REVIEWS 3/31/18

Article(s) of interest: Self-Assigned Article: Food Irradiation. Plan on cleaning up the citations and incorporate more food products and effects throughout the article. Additionally, plan on organizing and updating the "Treatment" section, focusing on the process of irradiation. As mentioned above, will improve on the three most common forms of irradiation and and known advantages and disadvantages. The "History Timeline" located at the bottom of the article can also be improved in the sense that the bullet points can be eliminated and turned into sentences and paragraphs given the references on each bullet point and history of irradiation.
 * High Pressure Processing - the "Talks" page only discussed a potential merge between HPP and another article (high pressure food preservation) and how HPP foods are used in the UK. The foods section could be thoroughly expanded given the advantages of HPP and how it is now used world-wide. The article is useful but VERY basic and can be used to further educate readers given new HPP research and history since the 1990s.
 * Pasteurization - can improve on the basic information as suggested in the "Talks" page. Although the article is focused on milk, it can be expanded as mentioned above in other products commonly pasteurized. The "specifics/parameters" of pasteurization and its respective equipment could be improved and better explained to readers.
 * Hurdle Technology - only two section in entire article (hurdles and synergistic effects). Can further elaborate on many points to educate readers. Nothing has been previously discussed in the "Talks" page.
 * Food Irradiation - article explores a wide variety of sections, but very basic and superficial information. Can also focus more on the foods commonly exposed to irradiation and the process of irradiation. Additionally, the article could improve on the three most common forms of irradiation (gamma, UV, and e- beam).

The following are several references that will be used to improve the article:
 * Food Processing Technology Principles and Practice - Book by P.J. Fellows
 * Irradiation for Quality Improvement, Microbial Safety and Phytosanitation of Fresh Produce - Book by Peter A. Follett and Rivka Barkai-Golan
 * Food Irradiation Research and Technology - Book by Xuetong Fan and Christopher H. Sommers

Brenda: Food Irradiation Article Review There was only one irrelevant point in the article, which was pertaining to irradiating medical devices. As the article is specifically called “Food Irradiation,” I felt that it was not relevant to article as medical devices would not fall under the umbrella of food. In my opinion, there was nothing greatly distracting in the article, however, felt that some topics were vague and could be elaborated upon - hence me being passionate about this article. Although the article has a distinct “Public Perception” section, there are controversial claims throughout the article without a citation. Such examples include the safety and reactivity of irradiated foods. Although the claims are correct, they need proper citation and need to be edited so they portray the information in a neutral position. In my opinion, the article does a good job of laying down the basics of food irradiation but needs work in further explaining some sections including the “Public Perception” section stated above, “Treatment and Process” section and subsection respectively, and the “Timeline/History” section. Additionally, a greatly underrepresented section is the equipment used for irradiation, which would be added by our group. Lastly, the article is missing additional information regarding the three most common forms of irradiation, which would also be added by our group. There was a total of 106 citations, and after doing a citation check, I noticed multiple “Anonymous” references. There were also multiple sources with errors in the references mainly missing the reference title and date. Also, some links were not scientifically grounded and were from organizations for/against irradiation. Upon clicking on the links, there were two sources that I noticed with either incorrect links. The other references I clicked on (journal articles and government websites) were functioning and adequately supported the claims throughout the article. Each fact is not referenced with an appropriate, reliable reference. The article is missing references throughout and is minutely biased. The minor bias was noticed throughout, especially in regards to controversy/public perception of food irradiation. More so, the bias was noticed mainly on negative claims of irradiation, which would be correctly referenced by our group. Information is not out of date, but could be elaborated on with recent research on irradiation. Additionally, with technological advances and recent publications, the article could be improved. There are three conversations going on in the “Talk” page - two of which have issues of references (under referencing sections and inadequate/unreliable references) while the third conversation discusses misleading phrases. There is also a “To-Do” list that can be elaborated upon. The article is an article of interest in the following three WikiProjects: WikiProject Medicine (B-class, low-importance), WikiProject Technology (B-class, no importance information), WikiProject Food and Drink (C-class, high-importance).
 * Irradiation of Food Commodities: Techniques, Applications, Detection, Legislation, Safety and Consumer Opinion - Book by Ioannis S. Arvanitoyannis
 * Journals - El Sevier, Journal of Food Quality, Trends in Food Science and Technology
 * Government Websites - USDA/FDA/HHS
 * Is everything in the article relevant to the article topic? Is there anything that distracted you?
 * Is the article neutral? Are there any claims, or frames, that appear heavily biased toward a particular position?
 * Are there viewpoints that are overrepresented, or underrepresented?
 * Check a few citations. Do the links work? Does the source support the claims in the article?
 * Is each fact referenced with an appropriate, reliable reference? Where does the information come from? Are these neutral sources? If biased, is that bias noted?
 * Is any information out of date? Is anything missing that could be added?
 * Check out the Talk page of the article. What kinds of conversations, if any, are going on behind the scenes about how to represent this topic?
 * How is the article rated? Is it a part of any WikiProjects?

Priscilla- Article Evaluated: Plate Heat Exchanger AJ- Pasteurization Article Review:
 * Is everything in the article relevant to the article topic? Is there anything that distracted you?
 * The paragraph on its invention seems to be out of place as it is not well incorporated into the flow of the article. Otherwise, all sections are relevant to the article topic.
 * Is the article neutral? Are there any claims, or frames, that appear heavily biased toward a particular position?
 * The lead section has a line stating " the plate heat exchanger has made great impact..." without any sources to back it up. It seems more like an opinion than a factual statement.
 * Are there viewpoints that are overrepresented, or underrepresented?
 * The article is fairly neutral.
 * Check a few citations. Do the links work? Does the source support the claims in the article?
 * The first citation links to a company website from which a sentence is quoted word-for-word in the article. The other citations used work. Some of the external links do not work.
 * Is each fact referenced with an appropriate, reliable reference? Where does the information come from? Are these neutral sources? If biased, is that bias noted?
 * The information used is sourced from scientific review articles and books. However, the external links provided link to manufacturer websites which could be biased.
 * Is any information out of date? Is anything missing that could be added?
 * A section could be added on the uses of the plate heat exchanger in industrial applications such as food processing.
 * Check out the Talk page of the article. What kinds of conversations, if any, are going on behind the scenes about how to represent this topic?
 * The talk page involves the discussion on what category the topic falls under with corrections on its mechanism and equations used.
 * How is the article rated? Is it a part of any WikiProjects?
 * The article is part of the WikiProject Chemical and Bio engineering (Rating: Start-class), WikiProject Engineering (Rating: Start-class) ,WikiProject Technology (Rating: C-class).
 * How does the way Wikipedia discusses this topic differ from the way we've talked about it in class?
 * This article talks more about the design and optimization of the plate heat exchanger without mentioning its applications or limitations. Additionally, there is no mention of the use of positive pressure created to prevent contamination of the food product being processed.

1.Is everything in the article relevant to the article topic? Is there anything that distracted you?

This article contained relevance to the uses, properties, and advantages to Pasteurization, specifically pertaining to milk.

2. Is the article neutral? Are there any claims, or frames, that appear heavily biased toward a particular position?

The article does make a claim for anti-Raw milk by stating its correlation to disease outbreak. No counter claim was stated, which should be included in that section

3. Are there viewpoints that are overrepresented, or underrepresented?

Significant portion of this article focused on pasteurization of milk, even though other types of products undergo pasteurization.

4.Check a few citations. Do the links work? Does the source support the claims in the article?

In general,most of the citations are properly cited and the sources support the claims, more towards pro-pasteurization.

5.Is each fact referenced with an appropriate, reliable reference? Where does the information come from? Are these neutral sources? If biased, is that bias noted?

There was definitely some bias in this article due to the fact that I could not identify certain sources/citations due to the vagueness of the description.

6.Is any information out of date? Is anything missing that could be added?

Certain citations dated back to the 1980's that discussed milk pasteurization protocol, but further expansion of these steps can be found in a more recent publication.

In general, I think more information can be added from our class textbook sections discussing pasteurization and addition of more recent research should be included as well.

7.Check out the Talk page of the article. What kinds of conversations, if any, are going on behind the scenes about how to represent this topic?

In the Talk page, few discussions were being done and more discussions should take place for further verification and quality of this article

8.How is the article rated? Is it a part of any WikiProjects?

This article is rated a B- class and 2 WikiProjects have discussions related to this topic.

For 4/7/18 - Food Irradiation:

Future direction/plans on article.

Plan on cleaning up the citations and incorporate more food products and effects throughout the article. Additionally, plan on organizing and updating the "Treatment" section, focusing on the process of irradiation. As mentioned above, will improve on the three most common forms of irradiation and and known advantages and disadvantages. The "History Timeline" located at the bottom of the article can also be improved in the sense that the bullet points can be eliminated and turned into sentences and paragraphs given the references on each bullet point and history of irradiation.

Compile a list of references, post the bibliography on the talk page and your sandbox.

The following are several references that will be used to improve the article:


 * Food Processing Technology Principles and Practice - Book by P.J. Fellows
 * Irradiation for Quality Improvement, Microbial Safety and Phytosanitation of Fresh Produce - Book by Peter A. Follett and Rivka Barkai-Golan
 * Food Irradiation Research and Technology - Book by Xuetong Fan and Christopher H. Sommers


 * Irradiation of Food Commodities: Techniques, Applications, Detection, Legislation, Safety and Consumer Opinion - Book by Ioannis S. Arvanitoyannis
 * Journals - El Sevier, Journal of Food Quality, Trends in Food Science and Technology
 * Government Websites - USDA/FDA/HHS

Evaluate how you can contribute to an existing article (create an outline indicating sections to improve), or contribute a new article (write the lead and create outline).

CURRENT Sections (hyperlinked and in blue); future contributions by group (denoted in black)


 * 1 Uses
 * Adding a more elaborate definition, incorporate the three commonly used modalities, hyperlink isotopes/alpha and beta particles/gamma photons
 * 2 Public perception- move to later
 * Add more neutral information regarding irradiation
 * 3 Impact- not sure what this section is about, maybe remove?
 * 3.1 Immediate effects-Change to direct and indirect effects
 * 3.1.1 Misconceptions- Remove
 * 3.1.2 Chemical changes
 * Decay/half-life-this section is specifically for gamma sources
 * Radiolytic products
 * 3.1.3 Food quality
 * 3.1.3.1 Quality Impact on Minimally Processed Vegetables
 * Adding more examples of commonly irradiated foods (frog legs, pet treats, spices)
 * 3.2 Long-term impacts
 * 3.2.1 Misconceptions-Remove
 * Adding more neutral information regarding irradiation
 * 3.3 Indirect effects of irradiation
 * 4 Treatment
 * 4.1 Process
 * More information about Cobalt-60 as a source of irradiating
 * Add "Mechanism of Action" section
 * Direct effects
 * Indirect effects
 * 4.2 Dosimetry
 * Incorporating frequently used parameters of foods added above
 * 4.3 Technology-
 * Adding "Equipment" subsection describing the types of machines used
 * 4.4 Cost
 * 5 Standards & regulations
 * 5.1 Labeling
 * Labeling as denoted by USDA and FDA - "treated with/by"; irradiated foods that do not require labeling (restaurants)
 * Add a "Packaging" section?
 * 5.2 Food safety
 * 5.2.1 United States
 * 5.2.2 European Union
 * 5.2.3 Australia
 * 5.3 Nuclear safety and security
 * 6 Irradiated food supply
 * 7 Timeline of the history of food irradiation
 * Updating history from 2011 to present and also elaborating on current bullet points where necessary
 * 8 See also
 * 9 Notes
 * 10 References
 * 11 Further reading
 * 12 External links

** Improvements throughout:


 * Remove irrelevant and biased claims
 * Improve citations with dependable and appropriate references from sites stated above (try to remove any/all unreliable and biased references)

DRAFT FOR 4/26/18:

= Food irradiation = Food irradiation is the process of exposing food to ionizing radiation which is capable of exciting or ionizing electrons in the target food molecules. Ionizing energy can include gamma rays obtained from a radioactive source and machine-generated x-rays and electron beams. Irradiation in low, medium and high doses is primarily used to extend product shelf-life (preservation), reduce the risk of foodborne illness by effectively destroying pathogenic organisms, delay sprouting, sterilize astronaut and hospital meals, and as a means of controlling insects pests. Sensory and nutritional aspects of treated foods are maintained since irradiation does not generate significant heat in the product. The packaging used for irradiated foods requires premarket approval in order to be used. The cost of food irradiation relies on a variety of factors. Although consumer perception of irradiated foods has been negative in comparison to other processing treatments, all independent research, and public health agencies such as the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the World Health Organization (WHO), the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) have confirmed irradiation to be safe. Irradiation is permitted in over 60 countries worldwide. Doses, labeling, standards, and regulations for food irradiation vary worldwide - all of which continue to adapt according to industry trends.

Gamma irradiation
Gamma irradiation is produced from the radioisotopes cobalt-60 and caesium-137, which are derived by neutron bombardment of cobalt-59 and as a nuclear source by-product, respectively. Cobalt-60 is the most common source of gamma rays for food irradiation in commercial scale facilities as it is water insoluble and hence has little risk of environmental contamination by leakage into the water systems. Conversely, caesium-137, is water soluble and poses a risk of environmental contamination. Gamma irradiation is widely used due to its high penetration depth and dose uniformity, allowing for large-scale applications with high through puts. Additionally, gamma irradiation is significantly less expensive than using an X-ray source In most designs, the radioisotope, contained in stainless steel pencils, is stored in a water-filled storage pool which absorbs the radiation energy when not in use. For treatment, the source is lifted out of the storage tank, and product contained in totes is passed around the pencils to achieve required processing.

Electron beam
Treatment of electron beams is created as a result of high energy electrons in an accelerator that generates electrons accelerated to 99% the speed of light. This system uses electrical energy and can be powered on and off. The high power correlates with a higher throughput and lower unit cost, but electron beams have low dose uniformity and a penetration depth of centimeters. Therefore, electron beam treatment works for products that have low thickness.

X-ray
X-rays are produced by bombardment of dense target material with high energy accelerated electrons giving rise to a continuous energy spectrum. Heavy metals, such as tantalum and tungsten, are used because of their high atomic numbers and high melting temperatures. Like electron beams, x-rays do not require the use of radioactive materials and can be turned off when not in use. X-rays have high penetration depths and high dose uniformity but they are a very expensive source of irradiation as only 8% of the incident energy is converted into X-rays.

Dosimetry
Absorbed doses are measured with dosimeters, which are devices that manifest a change chemical or physical attributes to a degree that correlates to the dose received.

Dose distribution
The distribution of radiation doses absorbed by a food varies from the food surface to the interior. The ratio of the maximum absorbed dose (Dmax) to the minimum absorbed dose (Dmin) is used to express the uniformity of dose distribution within a product.

Irradiation facilities and source transportation
Regardless of treatment source, all processing facilities must adhere to safety standards set by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Codex Code of Practice for the Radiation Processing of Food, Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). More specifically, ISO 14470 and ISO 9001 provide in-depth information regarding safety in irradiation facilities.

All commercial irradiation facilities contain safety systems are designed to prevent exposure of personnel to radiation. The radiation source is constantly shielded by water, concrete, or metal. Irradiation facilities are designed with overlapping layers of protection, interlocks, and safeguards to prevent accidental radiation exposure. Additionally, "melt-downs" do not occur in facilities because the radiation source gives off radiation and decay heat; however, the heat is not sufficient to melt any material.

As for transportation of the radiation source, cobalt-60 is transported in special trucks that prevent release of radiation and meet standards mentioned in the Regulations for Safe Transport of Radioactive Materials of the International Atomic Energy Act. The special trucks must meet high safety standards and pass extensive tests to be approved to ship radiation sources.

Direct and indirect effects
The energy produced by irradiation of food causes excitation and ionization of electrons, which leads to ejection of electrons from food atoms. Additionally, ionization gives rise to free radicals and charged ions which further react in the food thus causing radiolysis of food materials including water. Irradiation also forms oxidizing radicals (reactive oxygen species) such as hydroxyl radicals, hydroperoxyl radicals in high moisture foods due to the ionization of water. These short-lived radicals are highly reactive and can effectively destroy microbial cells and insect pests.

Effect on microorganisms

Ionizing energy inactivates microorganisms by damaging DNA and RNA, cell membrane structure, and affecting metabolic enzyme activity in cells. DNA and RNA are vital components in the cell nuclei required for cell growth and replication, and upon treatment, cells fail to replicate due to damage to their genetic material. Reduction in cell numbers depends on the irradiation dose used for treatment.

Nutritional and sensory quality
Since radiation is a non-thermal process, commercial irradiation doses on most foods have minimal impact on sensory qualities (color, taste, texture, appearance) and nutrient content. However, irradiation can affect quality of some fruits and vegetables due to hydrolysis of pectic substances, interior or peel damage, enhanced electrolyte leakage. Amino acids that comprise proteins, remain in the same composition and digestible at commercial levels of irradiation. Irradiation of foods with high fat content can result in lipid oxidation, which produce off-flavors and off-aromas due to byproducts of lipid oxidation.

Micronutrients are minimally altered by irradiation. Vitamin inactivation is dependent on the specific vitamin along with dosage and type of product used for irradiation. Vitamin D and vitamin K are mainly unaffected by irradiation while vitamin A and vitamin E are sensitive to radiation, as are water soluble vitamins such as vitamin C and thiamin.

Although changes in nutritional and sensory qualities by irradiation depend greatly on the degree of treatment and vary among foods, it is well established that irradiation does not cause nutritional loss any more than any other food processing technology.

Chemical changes
Irradiation does not make food radioactive, just as an object exposed to light does not start producing light. To induce radiation, the atomic core (nucleus) of the atoms in the target material must be modified. By only affecting the outermost electrons, foods treated with irradiation are not radioactive as irradiation does not provide enough energy to destabilize the nuclei of the food matrix. The energy used destroys bacteria but does not pose significant changes to the food itself.

As a result of high energy, irradiated foods may form radiolytic products (hydrocarbons, aldehydes, and ketones) from ions and free radicals as a result of the high energy; however, there is no evidence to conclude that the free radicals produced by irradiation of food alter the safety of food products. Most products of irradiation are also present upon naturally-occurring food oxidation and in food that has been subjected to other food processing treatments. The family of chemicals formed exclusively by irradiation (2-alkylcyclobutanones, 2-ACB's) consists of non-toxic, unique radiolytic products formed upon irradiating primarily fatty acids. However, the genotoxicity of alkylcyclobutanones is yet to be determined, therefore the true impact of them as radiolytic products is unknown.

Irradiation, similar to thermal processing, also produces furans, especially in juices high in sugar and acid, fresh fruits and vegetables, and apple cider. Furans are considered to be carcinogenic, but their the level at which they are carcinogenic has not been established. The amount of furans produced by irradiation is to a lesser extent than when foods are heat processed or simply stored under refrigeration. Another carcinogen produced by irradiation is benzene but is only formed at extremely high doses which are not allowed for food.

Advantages of irradiation
Food irradiation has many advantages in regards to its process, efficiency, and overall production of food. This process improves overall microbial safety and reduces the risk of foodborne illness. In regards to fresh foods, preservation may be achieved without the use of pesticides and reduce product contamination. Minimal heating is an advantage in preserving the organoleptic properties of various fruits and vegetables. Compared to most methods, nutritional value of foods are minimally reduced and the overall energy requirements are very low. Additionally, the food irradiation process can be done on packaged food, which reduces the chances for post processing contamination and allows for rapid treatment and shipment to consumers.

Concerns related to food irradiation
Irradiation can be of concern if it is used to treat foods that are of low microbial quality. Irradiation consists of high energy based electrons that can damage the food if microbial load is of low quality. The use of ionizing radiation for pest control has been found to alter the postharvest ripening and senescence of fruits. Another concern with irradiating foods has been the over expression of peroxides and hydroperoxides, altering the overall composition, flavor, and texture of the food. In general, Irradiation is effective against bacterial pathogens and parasites, yet has limited impact against viruses.

Standards & regulations
Irradiation treatment on food is approved in more than 37 countries around the world, thus several agencies are involved in the regulatory aspects of foods. The Codex Alimentarius represents the global standard for irradiation of food, which has established a framework for international standards for food irradiation; however, nations may use their own regulations and labeling, but may be required to follow regulations pertaining to trading agreements.

Food safety
Standards that describe calibration and operation for radiation dosimetry, as well as procedures to relate the measured dose to the effects achieved and to report and document such results, are maintained by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM international) and are also available as ISO/ASTM standards. All rules involved in processing food are applied to all foods before they are irradiated. Before individual items in an approved class can be added to the approved list, studies into the toxicology of each of such food and for each of the proposed dose ranges are requested. Radiation should not be used in lieu of good manufacturing or agricultural practices nor as a substitute to hygiene or health practices.

In 2003, the Codex Alimentarius removed any upper dose limit for food irradiation as well as clearances for specific foods, declaring that all are safe to irradiate. The General Standard provided by Codex states that the minimum irradiation dose should be enough to achieve its purpose while the maximum dose should not exceed a dose that could compromise consumer safety or cause adverse effects to structural integrity, functional properties, or sensory attributes of foods. Most countries will approve the use of irradiation on a specific food or food class on a case-by-case basis depending on the purpose of treatment based on procedures.

Labeling
The Radura symbol is associated with food that has been treated with ionizing radiation. The use of a Radura symbol in international food irradiation is optional and not a designator of quality, but rather a label to inform consumers that ingredients used or the product itself has been irradiated. In addition to the Radura symbol located near the name of the food, a written statement indicating irradiation treatment should be placed near the name of the food. Some countries require a statement of irradiation purpose or benefit to be placed on the packaging as well. Irradiated products used as ingredients in other foods should be declared on the ingredient list while only a statement indicating treatment is required when a single ingredient product is made from an irradiated raw material. Despite the recommendation of Codex Alimentarius to label all irradiated ingredients, labeling requirements tend to vary by nation.

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) are the agencies responsible for regulation of radiation sources in the United States. USDA regulates irradiation of meat, poultry, and fresh fruit, while the FDA regulates the rest of the food commodities. Each food approved for irradiation has specific guidelines in terms of minimum and maximum dosage as deterred safe by the FDA and USDA. All irradiated foods must include a prominent Radura symbol followed in addition to the statement "treated with irradiation" or "treated by irradiation". USDA labeling regulations on single ingredient meats and poultry state that the treated product cannot be labeled as "natural," as irradiation is not a minimal process. Irradiated meats and poultry can be labeled as "all," "pure," or "100%" if the ingredients support the claims. Bulk foods must be individually labeled with the symbol and statement or, alternatively, the Radura and statement should be located at the point of sale. Food that is processed as an ingredient by a restaurant or food processor is exempt from the labeling requirement in the US. The FDA defines irradiation as a "food additive" as opposed to a food process thus falls under the food additive regulations. Packaging materials undergoing irradiation must also obtain agency approval.

Packaging
Food processors and manufactures today struggle with using affordable, efficient packaging materials for irradiation based processing. The implementation of irradiation on prepackaged foods has been found to impact foods by inducing specific chemical alterations to the food packaging material that migrates into the food. Cross-linking in various plastics can lead to physical and chemical modifications that can increase the overall molecular weight. On the other hand, chain scission is fragmentation of polymer chains that leads to a molecular weight reduction.

Under section 409 of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, irradiation of prepackaged foods requires premarket approval for not only the irradiation source for a specific food but also for the food packaging material. Approved packaging materials include various plastic films, yet does not cover a variety of polymers and adhesive based materials that have been found to meet specific standards. The lack of packaging material approval limits manufacturers production and expansion of irradiated prepackaged foods.

Approved materials by FDA for Irradiation according to 21 CFR 179.45:

Irradiated food supply
Food irradiation is permitted by over 60 countries, with about 500,000 metric tons of food annually processed worldwide. The regulations that dictate how food is to be irradiated, as well as the food allowed to be irradiated, vary greatly from country to country. In Austria, Germany, and many other countries of the European Union only dried herbs, spices, and seasonings can be processed with irradiation and only at a specific dose, while in Brazil all foods are allowed at any dose.

As of 2010, the quantities of foods irradiated in Asia, the EU and the US were 285,200, 9,300, and 103,000 tons. Authorities in some countries use tests that can detect the irradiation of food items to enforce labeling standards and to bolster consumer confidence. The European Union monitors the market to determine the quantity of irradiated foods, if irradiated foods are labeled as irradiated, and if the irradiation is performed at approved facilities.

Irradiation of fruits and vegetables to prevent the spread of pest and diseases across borders has been increasing globally. In 2010, 18,446 tons of fruits and vegetables were irradiated in six countries for export quarantine control. 97% of this was exported to the United States.

In total, 103,000 tons of food products were irradiated on mainland United States in 2010. The three types of foods irradiated the most were spices (77.7%), fruits and vegetables (14.6%) and meat and poultry (7.77%). 17,953 tons of irradiated fruits and vegetables were exported to the mainland United States. Mexico, the United States' state of Hawaii, Thailand, Vietnam and India export irradiated produce to the mainland U.S. Mexico, followed by the United States' state of Hawaii, is the largest exporter of irradiated produce to the mainland U.S.

In total, 6,876 tons of food products were irradiated in European Union countries in 2013; mainly in four member state countries: Belgium (49.4%), the Netherlands (24.4%), Spain (12.7%) and France (10.0%). The two types of foods irradiated the most were frog legs (46%), and dried herbs and spices (25%). There has been a decrease of 14% in the total quantity of products irradiated in the EU compared to the previous year 2012 (7,972 tons).

Cost
The cost of food irradiation is influenced by dose requirements, volume and type of product, type and efficiency of radiation source, the food's tolerance of radiation, handling conditions, i.e., packaging and stacking requirements, construction costs, financing arrangements, and other variables particular to the situation. In the case of large research or contract irradiation facilities, major capital costs include a radiation source, hardware (irradiator, totes and conveyors, control systems, and other auxiliary equipment), land (1 to 1.5 acres), radiation shield, and warehouse. Irradiation is a capital-intensive technology requiring a substantial initial investment, ranging from $1 million to $5 million. Operating costs include salaries (for fixed and variable labor), utilities, maintenance, taxes/insurance, cobalt-60 replenishment, general utilities, and miscellaneous operating costs. In the United States, the cost of food irradiation ranges between $0.02 and $0.40 per kilogram, varying depending on all the variables associated with irradiation.

Public perception
Negative connotations associated with the word "radiation" are thought to be responsible for low consumer acceptance. Several national expert groups and two international expert groups evaluated the available data and concluded that any food at any dose is wholesome and safe to consume.

Irradiation has been approved by many countries. For example, in the U.S. the FDA has approved food irradiation for over fifty years. However, in the past decade the major growth area is for fruits and vegetables that are irradiated to prevent the spread of pests. In the early 2000s in the US, irradiated meat was common at some grocery stores, but because of lack of consumer demand, it is no longer common. Because consumer demand for irradiated food is low, the benefits of shelf-life extension and reducing the risk of food borne illness are currently not sufficient incentive for most manufacturers to supplement their process with irradiation. Nevertheless, food irradiation does take place commercially and volumes are in general increasing at a slow rate, even in the European Union where all member countries allow the irradiation of dried herbs spices and vegetable seasonings but only a few allow other foods to be sold as irradiated.

It is however, widely believed that consumer perception of foods treated with irradiation is more negative than those processed by other means. Because of these concerns and the increased cost of irradiated foods, there is not a widespread public demand for the irradiation of foods for human consumption.

Timeline of the history of food irradiation
1980 FAO/IAEA/WHO Joint Expert Committee on Food Irradiation recommends the clearance generally up to 10 kGy "overall average dose" 
 * 1895 Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovers X-rays ("bremsstrahlung", from German for radiation produced by deceleration)
 * 1896 Antoine Henri Becquerel discovers natural radioactivity; Minck proposes the therapeutic use
 * 1904 Samuel Prescott describes the bactericide effects Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)
 * 1906 Appleby & Banks: UK patent to use radioactive isotopes to irradiate particulate food in a flowing bed
 * 1918 Gillett: U.S. Patent to use X-rays for the preservation of food
 * 1921 Schwartz describes the elimination of Trichinella from food
 * 1930 Wuest: French patent on food irradiation
 * 1943 MIT becomes active in the field of food preservation for the U.S. Army 1951 U.S. Atomic Energy Commission begins to co-ordinate national research activities1958 World first commercial food irradiation (spices) at Stuttgart, Germany 1970 Establishment of the International Food Irradiation Project (IFIP), headquarters at the Federal Research Centre for Food Preservation, Karlsruhe, Germany


 * 1981/1983 End of IFIP after reaching its goals
 * 1983 Codex Alimentarius General Standard for Irradiated Foods: any food at a maximum "overall average dose" of 10 kGy
 * 1984 International Consultative Group on Food Irradiation (ICGFI) becomes the successor of IFIP
 * 1998 The European Union's Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) voted "positive" on eight categories of irradiation applications
 * 1997 FAO/IAEA/WHO Joint Study Group on High-Dose Irradiation recommends to lift any upper dose limit
 * 1999 The European Union issues Directives 1999/2/EC (framework Directive) and 1999/3/EC (implementing Directive) limiting irradiation a positive list whose sole content is one of the eight categories approved by the SFC, but allowing the individual states to give clearances for any food previously approved by the SFC.
 * 2000 Germany leads a veto on a measure to provide a final draft for the positive list.
 * 2003 Codex Alimentarius General Standard for Irradiated Foods: no longer any upper dose limit
 * 2003 The SCF adopts a "revised opinion" that recommends against the cancellation of the upper dose limit.
 * 2004 ICGFI ends
 * 2011 The successor to the SFC, European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), reexamines the SFC's list and makes further recommendations for inclusion.