User:Sylarthur/Avian viruses

AVIAN VIRUSES

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Avian viruses include those viruses that infect birds and poultry.

Contents Newcastle disease virus Avian infectious bronchitis virus Avian Influenza

1. Newcastle disease
Virus classification Group: Group V ((-)ssRNA) Order: Mononegavirales Family: Paramyxoviridae Genus: Avulavirus Species: Newcastle disease virus

Newcastle disease is a contagious bird disease affecting many domestic and wild avian species. Its effects are most notable in domestic poultry due to their high susceptibility and the potential for severe impacts of an epidemic on the poultry industries. It is endemic to many countries.

Newcastle Disease was discovered in Newcastle upon Tyne, England in 1926 (Doyle), but also at this time slightly different strains were found in other parts of the world.

Exposure of humans to infected birds (for example in poultry processing plants) can cause mild conjunctivitis and influenza-like symptoms, but the Newcastle disease virus (NDV) otherwise poses no hazard to human health. Interest in the use of NDV as an anticancer agent has arisen from the ability of NDV to selectively kill human tumour cells with limited toxicity to normal cells.

No treatment for NDV exists, but the use of prophylactic vaccines and sanitary measures reduces the likelihood of outbreaks.

Contents [hide] 1 The causal agent 1.1 Description 1.2 Strains 1.3 Use as an anti-cancer agent 1.4 Use as a biological weapon 2 Transmission 3 Clinical findings 3.1 Symptoms 3.2 Post-mortem lesions 4 Diagnosis 4.1 Immunological tests 4.2 Virus isolation 4.2.1 Samples 4.2.2 Handling 5 Prevention 6 References 6.1 Footnotes 7 External links [edit] The causal agent [edit] Description The causal agent, Newcastle disease virus (NDV), is a negative-sense single-stranded RNA virus. Transmission occurs by exposure to faecal and other excretions from infected birds, and through contact with contaminated feed, water, equipment and clothing.

[edit] Strains NDV strains can be categorised as velogenic (highly virulent), mesogenic (intermediate virulence) or lentogenic (nonvirulent). Velogenic strains produce severe nervous and respiratory signs, spread rapidly and cause up to 90% mortality. Mesogenic strains cause coughing, affect egg quality and production and result in up to 10% mortality. Lentogenic strains produce mild signs with negligible mortality.

[edit] Use as an anti-cancer agent In 1999, promising results were reported using an attenuated strain of the Newcastle virus codenamed MTH-68 in cancer patients[1] by researchers who had isolated the strain in 1968[2][3]. It appears that the virus preferentially targets and replicates in certain types of tumor cells, leaving normal cells almost unaffected. In 2006 researchers from the Hebrew University also succeeded in isolating a variant of the Newcastle Disease Virus codenamed NDV-HUJ which showed promising results in 14 Glioblastoma multiforme patients[4].

[edit] Use as a biological weapon Newcastle disease was one of more than a dozen agents that the United States researched as potential biological weapons before the nation suspended its biological weapons program[citation needed].

[edit] Transmission NDV is spread primarily through direct contact between healthy birds and the bodily discharges of infected birds. The disease is transmitted through infected birds' droppings and secretions from the nose, mouth, and eyes. NDV spreads rapidly among birds kept in confinement, such as commercially raised chickens.

High concentrations of the NDV are found in birds' bodily discharges; therefore, the disease can be spread easily by mechanical means. Virus-bearing material can be picked up on shoes and clothing and carried from an infected flock to a healthy one.

NDV can survive for several weeks in a warm and humid environment on birds' feathers, manure, and other materials. It can survive indefinitely in frozen material. However, the virus is destroyed rapidly by dehydration and by the ultraviolet rays in sunlight. Smuggled pet birds, especially Amazon parrots from Latin America, pose a great risk of introducing NDV into the US. Amazon parrots that are carriers of the disease but do not show symptoms are capable of shedding NDV for more than 400 days.

[edit] Clinical findings [edit] Symptoms Egg drop after a (otherwise asymptomatic) Newcastle disease infection in a duly vaccinated broiler parent flockSigns of infection with NDV vary greatly depending on factors such as the strain of virus and the health, age and species of the host.

The incubation period for the disease ranges from 2 to 15 days. An infected bird may exhibit the following signs:

They can include respiratory signs (gasping, coughing), nervous signs (depression, inappetence, muscular tremors, drooping wings, twisting of head and neck, circling, complete paralysis), swelling of the tissues around the eyes and neck, greenish, watery diarrhoea, misshapen, rough- or thin-shelled eggs and reduced egg production.

In acute cases, the death is very sudden, and, in the beginning of the outbreak, the remaining birds do not seem to be sick. In flock with good immunity, however, the signs (respiratory an digestive) are mild and progressive, and are followed after 7 days by nervous symptoms, especially twisted heads.

Torticollis in a mallard. Same symptom in a broiler. PM lesions on proventriculus, gizzard and duodenum.

[edit] Post-mortem lesions Typical are the petechiae in proventriculus and on submucosae of gizzard; there is also severe enteritis of the duodenum. The lesions are scarce in hyperacute cases (first day of outbreak).

[edit] Diagnosis [edit] Immunological tests Enzyme Linked Immunosorbant Assay (ELISA), PCR, Sequence technology.

[edit] Virus isolation [edit] Samples For routine isolation of NDV from chickens, turkeys, and other birds, samples are obtained by swabbing the trachea and the cloaca. Cotton swabs can be used. The virus can also be isolated from the lungs, brain spleen, liver, and kidneys.

[edit] Handling Prior to shipping samples should be stored at 4 C. (refrigerator). Samples must be shipped in a padded envelope or box. Samples may be sent by regular mail, but overnight is recommended.[5]

[edit] Prevention Any animals that are showing symptoms of Newcastle Disease should be quarantined immediately. New birds should also be vaccinated before being introduced to your flock. There is an inactivated viral vaccine available, as well as various combination vaccines.

[edit] References Nelson CB, Pomeroy BS, Schrall K, Park WE, Lindeman RJ. (1952). An outbreak of conjunctivitis due to Newcastle disease virus (NDV) occurring in poultry workers. Am J Public Health 42(6):672–8. [edit] Footnotes 1.^ 2.^ JNCI correspondence 3.^ 4.^ [1] 5.^ http://www.avianbiotech.com/Diseases/Newcastle.htm [edit] External links World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, UK United States Animal Health Association VELOGENIC NEWCASTLE DISEASE [2] Iowa State University Department of Veterinary Pathology, Center for Food Security and Public Health, "Newcastle Disease" [3] Full description of the disease

2.Avian infectious bronchitis virus
Virus classification Group: Group IV ((+)ssRNA) Order: Nidovirales Family: Coronaviridae Genus: Coronavirus Species: Avian infectious bronchitis virus

Avian infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is a coronavirus which infects poultry, causing the associated disease, infectious bronchitis (IB). It is a highly infectious avian pathogen which affects the respiratory tract, gut, kidney and reproductive systems of chickens.[1][2]

Contents [hide] 1 Classification 2 Pathology 2.1 Repiratory system 2.2 Kidney 2.3 Reproductive system 3 References [edit] Classification IBV is a coronavirus with a non-segmented, positive-sense single-stranded RNA genome.[3]

[edit] Pathology [edit] Repiratory system When virus is inhaled through respiratory tract, virus is attached to ciliated epithelial cells on respiratory tract. Then viral replication starts and viral particles spread into blood vessel in which they causes viremia. This process leads to necrosis of respiratory tract which causes coughing, rale.

[edit] Kidney Through viremia, some nephrotropic strains (most of them have high virulence) could penetrate into kidney. It causes swelling, urolithiasis in kidney. Grossly, pale color of kidney could be appeared. Microscopically, uric crystals could be found in the renal tubule or ureter.

[edit] Reproductive system Viremia also lead to reduction of egg productivity. The accumulation of white, sticky exudate could plug cloaca which is referred to as "Pasting". In some cases, ovarian follicle could be found on peritoneal cavity. But this lesion is not specific for infectitive bronchitis. Many acute diseases of layer could lead to that condition.[4]

[edit] References 1.^ Casais, R., Thiel, V.,, Siddell, S.G., Cavanagh, D., Britton, P. (2001). "Reverse genetics system for the avian coronavirus infectious bronchitis virus.". Journal of Virology 75 (24): 12359–12369. doi:10.1128/JVI.75.24.12359-12369.2001. . 2.^ Cavanagh, D. (2001). "A nomenclature for avian coronavirus isolates and the question of species status.". Avian Pathology 30 (2): 109–115. doi:10.1080/03079450120044506. . 3.^ de Vries, A.A.F., Horzinek, M.C., Rottier, P.J.M., de Groot., R.J. (1997). "The genome organisation of the Nidovirales: similarities and differences between arteri-, toro-, and coronaviruses.". Seminars in Virology 8: 33–547. doi:10.1006/smvy.1997.0104. 4.^ "Infectious Bronchitis: Introduction". The Merck Veterinary Manual. 2006. http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/index.jsp?cfile=htm/bc/206500.htm. Retrieved 2007-06-17.

3.Avian influenza
Types Avian (A/H5N1 subtype) · Canine Equine · Swine (A/H1N1 subtype) Vaccines 2009 pandemic (Pandemrix) ACAM-FLU-A · Fluzone · Influvac Live attenuated (FluMist) · Optaflu Treatment Amantadine · Arbidol · Laninamivir Oseltamivir · Peramivir · Rimantadine Vitamin D · Zanamivir Pandemics 2009 · 1968–1969 Hong Kong · 1918 Outbreaks 2008 West Bengal 2007 Bernard Matthews H5N1 2007 Australian equine 2006 H5N1 India · 1976 swine flu See also Flu season · Influenza evolution Influenza research Influenza-like illness

For the H5N1 subtype of Avian influenza see Influenza A virus subtype H5N1. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2010)

Avian influenza, sometimes avian flu, and commonly bird flu, refers to "influenza caused by viruses adapted to birds."[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][clarification needed] Of the greatest concern is highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI).

"Bird flu" is a phrase similar to "swine flu," "dog flu," "horse flu," or "human flu" in that it refers to an illness caused by any of many different strains of influenza viruses that have adapted to a specific host. All known viruses that cause influenza in birds belong to the species influenza A virus. All subtypes (but not all strains of all subtypes) of influenza A virus are adapted to birds, which is why for many purposes avian flu virus is the influenza A virus (note that the "A" does not stand for "avian").

Adaptation is non-exclusive. Being adapted towards a particular species does not preclude adaptations, or partial adaptations, towards infecting different species. In this way strains of influenza viruses are adapted to multiple species, though may be preferential towards a particular host. For example, viruses responsible for influenza pandemics are adapted to both humans and birds. Recent influenza research into the genes of the Spanish flu virus shows it to have genes adapted to both birds and humans; with more of its genes from birds than less deadly later pandemic strains.

Contents [hide] 1 Nomenclature and taxonomy 2 Genetics 3 Subtypes 4 Influenza pandemic 5 H5N1 6 In domestic animals 6.1 Birds 7 See also 8 References 9 External links [edit] Nomenclature and taxonomy This section requires expansion.

[edit] Genetics Genetic factors in distinguishing between "human flu viruses" and "avian flu viruses" include:

PB2: (RNA polymerase): Amino acid (or residue) position 627 in the PB2 protein encoded by the PB2 RNA gene. Until H5N1, all known avian influenza viruses had a Glu at position 627, while all human influenza viruses had a Lys. HA: (hemagglutinin): Avian influenza HA bind alpha 2-3 sialic acid receptors while human influenza HA bind alpha 2-6 sialic acid receptors. Swine influenza viruses have the ability to bind both types of sialic acid receptors. Hemagglutinin is the major antigen of the virus against which neutralizing antibodies are produced and influenza virus epidemics are associated with changes in its antigenic structure. This was originally derived from pigs, and should technically be referred to as "Pig Flu" (see ref. 7a) [edit] Subtypes There are many subtypes of avian influenza viruses, but only some strains of four subtypes have been highly pathogenic in humans. These are types H5N1, H7N3, H7N7 and H9N2.[8]

Examples of avian influenza A virus strains:[9]

HA subtype designation NA subtype designation Avian influenza A viruses H1 N1 A/duck/Alberta/35/76(H1N1) H1 N8 A/duck/Alberta/97/77(H1N8) H2 N9 A/duck/Germany/1/72(H2N9) H3 N8 A/duck/Ukraine/63(H3N8) H3 N8 A/duck/England/62(H3N8) H3 N2 A/turkey/England/69(H3N2) H4 N6 A/duck/Czechoslovakia/56(H4N6) H4 N3 A/duck/Alberta/300/77(H4N3) H5 N3 A/tern/South Africa/300/77(H4N3) H5 N4 A/jyotichinara/Ethiopia/300/77(H6N6) H5 N9 A/turkey/Ontario/7732/66(H5N9) H5 N1 A/chick/Scotland/59(H5N1) H6 N2 A/turkey/Massachusetts/3740/65(H6N2) H6 N8 A/turkey/Canada/63(H6N8) H6 N5 A/shearwater/Australia/72(H6N5) H6 N1 A/duck/Germany/1868/68(H6N1) H7 N7 A/fowl plague virus/Dutch/27(H7N7) H7 N1 A/chick/Brescia/1902(H7N1) H7 N3 A/turkey/England/639H7N3) H7 N1 A/fowl plague virus/Rostock/34(H7N1) H8 N4 A/turkey/Ontario/6118/68(H8N4) H9 N2 A/turkey/Wisconsin/1/66(H9N2) H9 N6 A/duck/Hong Kong/147/77(H9N6) H10 N7 A/chick/Germany/N/49(H10N7) H10 N8 A/quail/Italy/1117/65(H10N8) H11 N6 A/duck/England/56(H11N6) H11 N9 A/duck/Memphis/546/74(H11N9) H12 N5 A/duck/Alberta/60/76/(H12N5) H13 N6 A/gull/Maryland/704/77(H13N6) H14 N4 A/duck/Gurjev/263/83(H14N4) H15 N9 A/shearwater/Australia/2576/83(H15N9)

[edit] Influenza pandemic Further information: Influenza pandemic Pandemic flu viruses have some avian flu virus genes and usually some human flu virus genes. Both the H2N2 and H3N2 pandemic strains contained genes from avian influenza viruses. The new subtypes arose in pigs coinfected with avian and human viruses and were soon transferred to humans. Swine were considered the original "intermediate host" for influenza, because they supported reassortment of divergent subtypes. However, other hosts appear capable of similar coinfection (e.g., many poultry species), and direct transmission of avian viruses to humans is possible.[10] The Spanish flu virus strain may have been transmitted directly from birds to humans.[11] In spite of their pandemic connection, avian influenza viruses are noninfectious for most species. When they are infectious they are usually asymptomatic, so the carrier does not have any disease from it. Thus while infected with an avian flu virus, the animal doesn't have a "flu". Typically, when illness (called "flu") from an avian flu virus does occur, it is the result of an avian flu virus strain adapted to one species spreading to another species (usually from one bird species to another bird species). So far as is known, the most common result of this is an illness so minor as to be not worth noticing (and thus little studied). But with the domestication of chickens and turkeys, humans have created species subtypes (domesticated poultry) that can catch an avian flu virus adapted to waterfowl and have it rapidly mutate into a form that kills in days over 90% of an entire flock and spread to other flocks and kill 90% of them and can only be stopped by killing every domestic bird in the area. Until H5N1 infected humans in the 1990s, this was the only reason avian flu was considered important. Since then, avian flu viruses have been intensively studied; resulting in changes in what is believed about flu pandemics, changes in poultry farming, changes in flu vaccination research, and changes in flu pandemic planning.

H5N1 has evolved into a flu virus strain that infects more species than any previously known flu virus strain, is deadlier than any previously known flu virus strain, and continues to evolve becoming both more widespread and more deadly causing Robert G. Webster, a leading expert on avian flu, to publish an article titled "The world is teetering on the edge of a pandemic that could kill a large fraction of the human population" in American Scientist. He called for adequate resources to fight what he sees as a major world threat to possibly billions of lives.[12] Since the article was written, the world community has spent billions of dollars fighting this threat with limited success.

Vaccines have been formulated against several of the avian H5N1 influenza varieties. Vaccination of poultry against the ongoing H5N1 epizootic is widespread in certain countries. Some vaccines also exist for use in humans, and others are in testing, but none have been made available to civilian populations, nor produced in quantities sufficient to protect more than a tiny fraction of the Earth's population in the event that an H5N1 pandemic breaks out. The World Health Organization has compiled a list of known clinical trials of pandemic influenza prototype vaccines, including those against H5N1.

[edit] H5N1 H5N1 Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 Genetic structure Infection Human mortality Global spread in 2004 in 2005 in 2006 in 2007 Social impact Pandemic v • d • e

Further information: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 and Transmission and infection of H5N1 The highly pathogenic influenza A virus subtype H5N1 virus is an emerging avian influenza virus that has been causing global concern as a potential pandemic threat. It is often referred to simply as "bird flu" or "avian influenza" even though it is only one subtype of avian influenza causing virus.

H5N1 has killed millions of poultry in a growing number of countries throughout Asia, Europe and Africa. Health experts are concerned that the co-existence of human flu viruses and avian flu viruses (especially H5N1) will provide an opportunity for genetic material to be exchanged between species-specific viruses, possibly creating a new virulent influenza strain that is easily transmissible and lethal to humans.[13]

Since the first H5N1 outbreak occurred in 1987, there has been an increasing number of HPAI H5N1 bird-to-human transmissions leading to clinically severe and fatal human infections. However, because there is a significant species barrier that exists between birds and humans, the virus does not easily cross over to humans, though some cases of infection are being researched to discern whether human to human transmission is occurring.[10] More research is necessary to understand the pathogenesis and epidemiology of the H5N1 virus in humans. Exposure routes and other disease transmission characteristics such as genetic and immunological factors, that may increase the likelihood of infection, are not clearly understood.[14]

On January 18, 2009, a 27-year-old woman from eastern China died of bird flu, Chinese authorities said, making her the second person to die from the deadly virus at that time. Two tests on the woman were positive for H5N1 avian influenza, said the ministry, which did not say how she might have contracted the virus[15].

Although millions of birds have become infected with the virus since its discovery, 262 humans have died from the H5N1 in twelve countries according to WHO data as of August 31, 2009.[16]

The avian flu claimed at least 200 humans in Indonesia, Vietnam, Laos, Romania, China, Taiwan, Turkey and Russia. Epidemiologists are afraid that the next time such a virus mutates, it could pass from human to human; however, the current A/H5N1 virus does not transmit easily from human to human. If this form of transmission occurs, another pandemic could result. Thus disease-control centers around the world are making avian flu a top priority. These organizations encourage poultry-related operations to develop a preemptive plan to prevent the spread of H5N1 and its potentially pandemic strains. The recommended plans center on providing protective clothing for workers and isolating flocks to prevent the spread of the virus.[17]

The Thailand outbreak of avian flu causes massive economic losses especially among poultry workers. Infected birds were culled and sacrificed. The public loss its confidence with the poultry products and thus decreasing the consumption of chicken and its products. This also elicited a ban from importing countries. There were however, factors which aggravated the spread of the virus which includes bird migration, cool temperature (increases virus survival) and several festivals at that time.[18]

[edit] In domestic animals Several domestic species have been infected with and shown symptoms of H5N1 viral infection including cats, dogs, ferrets, pigs,and birds.

[edit] Birds Attempts are made in the United States to minimize the presence of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) in poultry in thorough routine surveillance of poultry flocks in commercial poultry operations. Detection of a HPAI virus may result in immediate death of the flock. Less pathogenic viruses are controlled by vaccination, which is done primarily in turkey flocks (ATCvet codes: QI01AA23 for the inactivated fowl vaccine, QI01CL01 for the inactivated turkey combination vaccine).[19]

[edit] See also Wikinews has related news: Six-year-old Egyptian boy contracts bird flu

Influenza H5N1 Global spread of H5N1 Transmission and infection of H5N1 Subtypes of Influenza A virus Influenzavirus A Influenza pandemic Influenza Genome Sequencing Project Influenza research Influenza vaccine OIE/FAO Network of Expertise on Avian Influenza International Partnership on Avian and Pandemic Influenza Pandemic Preparedness and Response Act [edit] References 1.^ "Avian influenza strains are those well adapted to birds"EUROPEAN CENTRE FOR DISEASE PREVENTION AND CONTROL. 2.^ Chapter Two : Avian Influenza by Timm C. Harder and Ortrud Werner in Influenza Report 2006 3.^ Large-scale sequencing of human influenza reveals the dynamic nature of viral genome evolution Nature magazine presents a summary of what has been discovered in the Influenza Genome Sequencing Project. 4.^ Avian Influenza A (H5N1) Infection in Humans by The Writing Committee of the World Health Organization (WHO) Consultation on Human Influenza A/H5 in the September 29, 2005 New England Journal of Medicine 5.^ The Threat of Pandemic Influenza: Are We Ready? Workshop Summary (2005) Full text of online book by INSTITUTE OF MEDICINE OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES 6.^ [1] CDC has a phylogenetic tree showing the relationship between dozens of highly pathogenic varieties of the Z genotype of avian flu virus H5N1 and ancestral strains. 7.^ Evolutionary characterization of the six internal genes of H5N1 human influenza A virus 8.^ Leong HK, Goh CS, Chew ST, et al (June 2008). "Prevention and control of avian influenza in Singapore". Ann. Acad. Med. Singap. 37 (6): 504–9. . http://www.annals.edu.sg/pdf/37VolNo6Jun2008/V37N6p504.pdf. Retrieved 2009-04-15. 9.^ Cox, N.; Kawaoka (1998). "22". in Mahy B. and Collier L.. Topley and Wilson's Microbiology and Microbial Infections. 1 Virology. Y. (9 ed.). Arnold. pp. 415. ISBN 0340614706. 10.^ a b Blanchard, Ben. "China says son likely infected father with bird flu." Reuters 10 Jen 2008 10 Jen 2008 . 11.^ Chapter Two : Avian Influenza by Timm C. Harder and Ortrud Werner 12.^ Webster, R. G. and Walker, E. J. (2003). "The world is teetering on the edge of a pandemic that could kill a large fraction of the human population" ([dead link]). American Scientist 91 (2): 122. doi:10.1511/2003.2.122. http://www.americanscientist.org/template/AssetDetail/assetid/17221?fulltext=true. 13.^ Food Safety Research Information Office. "A Focus on Avian Influenza". Created May 2006, Updated November 2007. 14.^ World Health Organization. (2006). Avian influenza (" bird flu") – The Disease in Humans. Retrieved April 6, 2006. 15.^ "Chinese say bird flu claims second victim". CNN. http://cnnwire.blogs.cnn.com/2009/01/18/chinese-say-bird-flu-claims-second-victim/. Retrieved April 26, 2010. 16.^ World Health Organization. Cumulative Number of Confirmed Human Cases of Avian Influenza A/(H5N1) Reported to WHO. August 31, 2009. http://www.who.int/csr/disease/avian_influenza/country/cases_table_2009_08_31/en/index.html. 17.^ Kullman, Greg; et al. (May 2008). "Protecting Poultry Workers from Avian Influenza (Bird Flu)". NIOSH Alert: Publication No. 2008-128. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2008-128/. Retrieved December 18, 2008. 18.^ Tiensn, Thanawat; et al.. Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza H5N1 Thailand, 2004. journal = Emerging Infectious Disease. 2005. CDC.. 11. pp. 1661–1672. 19.^ Thacker E, Janke B (February 2008). "Swine influenza virus: zoonotic potential and vaccination strategies for the control of avian and swine influenzas". The Journal of Infectious Diseases 197 Suppl 1: S19–24. doi:10.1086/524988. . [edit] External links Wikinews has related news: Category:Avian Flu

International United Nations System Coordinator for Avian and Human Influenza (UNSIC). Avian Influenza and the Pandemic Threat World Health Organisation (WHO) WHO Avian influenza resource The United Nation's World Health Organization's Avian Flu Facts Sheet for 2006 Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN (FAO) FAO Avian Influenza portal Information resources, animations, videos, photos FAO Bird Flu disease card World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) Official outbreak reports by country Official outbreak reports by week Avian influenza resource By Dr. Nati Elkin - Atlases, vaccines and information. United States PandemicFlu.Gov U.S. Government avian and pandemic flu information US Avian Influenza Response U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) Avian influenza research and recommendations National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Influenza Research Database Database of influenza sequences and related information. Wildlife Disease Information Node A part of the National Biological Information Infrastructure and partner of the NWHC, this agency collects and distributes news and information about wildlife diseases such as avian influenza and coordinates collaborative information sharing efforts. Avian Influenza information AVMA - The American Veterinary Medical Association. Europe Health-EU Portal EU response to Avian Influenza. Avian Influenza: Prevention and Control Proceedings of the Frontis workshop on Avian Influenza: Prevention and Control, Wageningen, The Netherlands Avian Influenza: Questions & Answers European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control - Official website FluTrop: Avian Influenza Research in Tropical Countries French Agricultural Research Center for Developing Countries (CIRAD), Avian Influenza website