User:Szabad lelek/sandbox

Practice Experience
I will be working with the CARES: Community Assessment of Renewable Energy and Sustainability organization, a multidisciplinary team of UC Berkeley professors, graduate students and undergraduates, throughout the Spring and Summer of 2019. The organization was founded in 2007 with the mission "to enable end users to make informed decisions about sustainability and renewable energy technologies by giving them agency during the design, development, and implementation of sustainability best practices and renewable energy technologies." The project has mostly focused on a collaboration between the CARES team and the Pinoleville Pomo Nation in Ukiah, CA. However, the organization has evolved and is now working with multiple Native American tribes throughout California. The specific projects that we will be working on this year are:


 * 1) Creek Restoration with the Pomo Nation
 * 2) Renovation of prototype sustainable homes built in 2007 with PPN
 * 3) Design of an innovative, effective composting system with the Yocha Dehe Wintun Nation
 * 4) STEAM Education and Makerspace creation with the PPN

I will be working on co-designing and developing a Makerspace ([]space) and STEAM education curriculum with the Pinoleville Pomo Nation.

Area: Indigenous education and self-determination
==== 1. "The Role of Education in American Indian Self-Determination" ==== Manuelito, Kathryn. “The Role of Education in American Indian Self-Determination: Lessons from the Ramah Navajo Community School.” Anthropology & Education Quarterly, vol. 36, no. 1, 2005, pp. 73–87. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3651310.

This article summarizes the intersection between Native American self-determination and education. The author, a Navajo researcher, examines a case study of the Ramah Navajo Community School in order to shed light on how Native Americans define education and self-determination. The article provides a concise, insightful summary of the history of Native American education and relevant governmental policies. Additionally, it offers an outline of key elements of Native American epistemology and discusses their importance in education. An interesting point brought up is the lack of adequate, culturally sensitive training for teachers. This article is very relevant to my practice experience, as the governmental policies described have surely affected the people I will be working with. I will definitely add some of the important historical information to my Wikipedia section as background information, and perhaps detail the Navajo Community School as a case study.

==== 2. “Reports from the Field: American Indian Self-Determination in Education and the Department of Interior.” ==== Hopkins, Tom R. “Reports from the Field: American Indian Self-Determination in Education and the Department of Interior.” Journal of American Indian Education, vol. 53, no. 1, 2014, pp. 54–60. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/43608714.

This article examines two case studies in which the US government undermined Native American self-determination through education. The author, a retired American Indian/Native Alaskan (AI/AN) educator, wrote this article to support American Indian-controlled schools and their efforts to increase educational self-determination. The article points out that funding-oriented, uninformed federal policies have a great influence on the quality of American Indian education, and have often worked directly against American Indian educational self-determination. The article details two specific examples: the implications of the closure of off-reservation boarding schools and the implementation of the No Child Left Behind policy. Incorporating these policies and their effects would be a good addition to Wikipedia, for both are relevant to the current discussion around tribal self-determination. The tone of this article is rather biased, but it contains lots of neutral information as well. I would be interested in researching the effects of the NCLB policy on the Pinoleville Pomo Nation schools, specifically Ukiah High School where we will be working in June.

==== 3. “Sovereignty and Education: An Overview of the Unique Nature of Indigenous Education.” ==== Bryan McKinley Jones Brayboy, et al. “Sovereignty and Education: An Overview of the Unique Nature of Indigenous Education.” Journal of American Indian Education, vol. 54, no. 1, 2015, pp. 1–9.

This article is the main introduction to more in-depth articles about Indigenous Education in the US. The article outlines the broad frameworks of tribal sovereignty and tribal self-determination in a clear, concise manner. Additionally, it explains the implications of the unique relationship between the US government and Native American tribes on tribal education. This article has been very helpful in clarifying the theoretical, “needs talk” that surrounds my practice experience. The article successfully breaks down the complexity of sovereignty and self-determination and connects them to indigenous education. The definitions outlined in this article will be very useful in adding to the Education section of my Area Wikipedia article, “Native American self-determination”. I will also attempt to find more relevant articles in this volume of the journal through this introduction.

==== 4. "Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience" ==== Adams, David Wallace. Education for Extinction : American Indians and the Boarding School Experience, 1875-1928. Lawrence, Kan. : University Press of Kansas, c1995.

This book is a comprehensive summary of the history of American Indian boarding schools. Adams describes not only the federal policies that shaped these schools, but he also recounts the daily experiences of the youth in order to convey the long-lasting effects of this form of education. The first chapter of the book is especially relevant to my practice experience as it outlines the evolution of the “needs talk” surrounding American Indian education from the arrival of the Europeans through the early 1900s. The first chapter sets up the four primary goals of early American Indian educational policy: to imbue English language and culture, to individualize, to Christianize, and to provide citizenship training. I found the description of early interest groups who played a large part in defining and addressing the “Indian problem,”very interesting. This book provides great context for understanding the current state of the “needs talk”regarding American Indian education as it relates to the Pinoleville Pomo Nation youth. I will use the information in this book to inform my own goals as I work on developing an educational curriculum for the youth STEM camp.

==== 5. "The Tribally Controlled Indian Colleges: The Beginnings of Self Determination in American Indian Education" ==== Oppelt, Norman T. The Tribally Controlled Indian Colleges : The Beginnings of Self Determination in American Indian Education. Tsaile, Ariz. : Navajo Community College Press, 1990.

This book provides an overview of the history of American Indian higher education, beginning with the Missionary Period. Oppelt writes this comprehensive summary to inform the general public about the history and potential of tribally controlled colleges. The book profiles 19 of the tribally controlled colleges that were established in the late 20th century and also outlines other American Indian higher education opportunities. The book is very detailed and contains lots of relevant facts about the organizations and the policies that have shaped American Indian higher education in the past centuries. It begins by outlining early religious and federal efforts to provide higher education for American Indians, it then discusses the emergence of tribally controlled colleges, their establishment and development, finally it comments on the future of these institutions. The detailed case studies shed light on the commonalities and differences in the challenges that these institutions have faced. The facts from this book will be a great addition to my Area article because higher education is a large, often ignored, part of Native American self-determination. The source is relatively outdated, so I will not use the contemporary statistics that it cites, but I will use the historical facts that it details so nicely. This book will help me consider the role of higher education in the self-determination of the Pinoleville Pomo Nation. I would like to learn more about what the graduates of Ukiah High School go on to do.

==== 6. "Research in American Indian and Alaska Native Education: From Assimilation to Self-Determination" ==== Deyhle, Donna, and Karen Swisher. “Research in American Indian and Alaska Native Education: From Assimilation to Self-Determination.” Review of Research in Education, vol. 22, 1997, pp. 113–194.

This journal chapter is a literature review of the past 30-40 years of scholarly work done in the field of Native American education. The authors use a culturally focused research method to gain an understanding of educational success and failure from the perspective of Native students. Additionally, they investigate recent initiatives undertaken by tribes to define and conduct their own research as part of self-determination. The authors conclude that the “deficit model”of Native American educational research misrepresents educational failure and blames it on the individual, when actually larger, societal structures are responsible for the poor educational performance amongst Native American youth. The literature review is very comprehensive and detailed; it outlines the legacy of educational research guided by assimilation ideology, and discusses the power of cultural difference theory in guiding contemporary research. The individual sources that the article cites are too specific; however, the examination of key debates about best practices for Native American education and the evolution of scholarship in this field, is very relevant to both my area and sector research. This article is a crucial source for my preparation for my practice experience because my organization researches the Native American tribes that they work with. In learning about the pitfalls and challenges of this type of research I will be able to better critique my practice experience organization’s approach.

==== 7. “The Hoop of Learning: Inclusion, Collaboration, and Education for Indigenous American Youth.” ==== Franks, Travis, and Kyle Mitchell. “The Hoop of Learning: Inclusion, Collaboration, and Education for Indigenous American Youth.” Teaching with Tension: Race, Resistance, and Reality in the Classroom, edited by Philathia Bolton et al., Northwestern University Press, Evanston, Illinois, 2019, pp. 125–142.

This article outlines the pedagogical philosophy of the Hoop of Learning Program at South Mountain Community College (SMCC), which aims to ease the transition of Native students into postsecondary education. The authors argue that colonial educational models cannot properly address Native American students’needs. Furthermore, they warn that the modern, neoliberal agenda undercuts efforts to improve the educational performance of Indigenous students because it values profit over wellbeing. The article addresses the need for educators to be more informed about the history and trauma of Native students, and also the need for a more inclusive, non-neoliberal mindset about indigenous education. While some of the information is very specific to the program, the general framework for inclusive pedagogy is informative and is very applicable to my practice experience. The HOL program combines Indigenous knowledge with Western academic standards through a unique storytelling framework. This framework will be very useful when I plan the curriculum for the STEM summer camp, for I will be facing a similar task of teaching STEM while also validating Indigenous knowledge.

==== 8. "Regaining Control Over the Children: Reversing the Legacy of Assimilative Policies" ==== Seelau, Ryan. “REGAINING CONTROL OVER THE CHILDREN: REVERSING THE LEGACY OF ASSIMILATIVE POLICIES IN EDUCATION, CHILD WELFARE, AND JUVENILE JUSTICE THAT TARGETED NATIVE AMERICAN YOUTH.” American Indian Law Review, vol. 37, no. 1, 2012, pp. 63–108.

This article, written by a human rights attorney who specializes in indigenous rights, examines the contemporary relationship between the law and Native American youth. Seelau asserts that the government has pushed assimilationist policies in three legal areas pertaining to youth: education, child welfare and juvenile justice. He claims that only the meaningful, selective exercise of tribal self-determination can undo the legacy of those policies. The article contains a concise outline of the history of Native American education, as well as modern statistics about tribally controlled schools. I will draw from these to add to my Area article on Wikipedia. Additionally, Seelau discusses an interesting concept called “Nation Building Model”, which proposes five pillars for successful Native American community development: practical sovereignty, effective institutions, cultural match, strategic orientation and Native leadership. I found this concept very interesting and relevant to my practice experience because the Pomo Nation, whom I will be collaborating with, is currently in the process of building tribally controlled, educational and environmental institutions.

Sector: Incorporating modern technology into tribal education
==== 1. "Technology Integration in American Indian Education" ==== Adcock, Trey. “Technology Integration in American Indian Education: An Overview.” Journal of American Indian Education, vol. 53, no. 2, 2014, pp. 104–121.

This article is a literature review and analysis of efforts to integrate technology into Native American education. The author argues that current literature about technology in Native American education is incomplete and presents a narrow view. The aim of this article is to uncover stories about current technologies being used to advance creativity and health in the Native American community, in order to showcase the potential of constructive technological integration in indigenous education. The author highlights that although technology has immense potential to aid in the preservation of native culture and language, it can also be viewed as an assimilation tool. Additionally, he points out the need not only for equitable access, but also equitable content creation. The article outlines different theoretical frameworks (TPACK and TC3) that are useful for discussing technology in the context of indigenous education. These frameworks would be a great addition to my Sector research for they shed light on many of the key debates about technology in indigenous education. In working on my practice experience, developing a STEM curriculum for the Pomo Nation summer camp, I have been grappling with a lot of the issues that this article brings up. I will use some of the successful case studies that this article offers to help and inspire me.

==== 2. “Culturally Based Science Education: Navigating Multiple Epistemologies” ==== ''Medin, Douglas L., and Megan Bang. “Chapter 12: Culturally Based Science Education: Navigating Multiple Epistemologies.” Who’s Asking?, Jan. 2014, p. 179.''

This chapter outlines the background, methods and results of a study that was done to demonstrate the potential and limitations of culturally based education in indigenous communities. In the study, the researchers co-designed a culturally based STEM curriculum for a summer camp in Chicago for Menominee children. Interestingly, the research design allowed community members to be “interactive participants”as they were involved in the conceptualization, implementation and analysis of the research. This chapter discusses the importance of multiple epistemologies in STEM, and how the study itself attempted to incorporate both Western and Native epistemologies in their STEM curriculum. This discussion could be a great addition to my Sector article about STEM in indigenous education. Additionally, this source is very relevant to my practice experience as it outlines a study that is almost identical to the project I will be working on this summer. These researchers had a much longer time frame than I will have, but their insights will help me evaluate and critique my own experience in a very similar setting.

==== 3. "Cultural Taboos as a Factor in the Participation Rate of Native Americans in STEM" ==== Deborah H. Williams, and Gerhard P. Shipley. “Cultural Taboos as a Factor in the Participation Rate of Native Americans in STEM.” International Journal of STEM Education, Vol 5, Iss 1, Pp 1-8 (2018), no. 1, 2018, p. 1. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1186/s40594-018-0114-7.

This study investigated if and how cultural taboos influenced Native American students’willingness to take STEM classes and obtain STEM degrees. The researchers concluded that cultural taboos do play a large role in Native American students’degree of comfort in STEM classes. The results of their survey showed that 67 percent of respondents would be more likely to take STEM classes, if the curriculum was more respectful of cultural taboos. The most problematic activities in STEM classes, according to the survey, were human and animal dissections. The results of this study could inform my Sector research by showing how small changes in curricula can completely alter how Native American students interact with STEM activities. This study also helped orient me towards thing to avoid when planning STEM curriculum for Pinoleville Pomo Nation youth.

==== 4. "Fostering Indigenous STEM Education: Mobilizing the Adventure Learning Framework through Snow Snakes" ==== Miller, Brant G., et al. “Reports from the Field: Fostering Indigenous STEM Education: Mobilizing the Adventure Learning Framework through Snow Snakes.” Journal of American Indian Education, vol. 51, no. 2, 2012, pp. 66–84.

This article discusses a research project that attempted to combine the educational frameworks of adventure learning and elements of Indigenous education, within an STEM curriculum. The STEM curriculum itself revolved around the tribal game of snow snakes, which is a common North American tribal winter game. The authors first discuss the relevant literature that pertains to the educational frameworks of the science-technology-society model (STS), adventure learning model (AL), and Indigenous education model. Then the author’s outline and examine their specific project that sought to combine these educational frameworks into a STEM curriculum. They discuss the steps and implementation of the project in detail. The frameworks and the terminology used throughout the article will be a great contribution to my Sector research because the more I know about the “expert talk”the better I can navigate the debates surrounding indigenous education. Upon reading this article, I realized that my practice experience organization has already incorporated the STS education model into our summer camp curriculum—I was just unaware of the terminology. Looking at other similar research projects, such as this snow snakes curriculum, will help me better prepare for my experience at the summer camp.

==== 5. "Motivating Young Native American Students to Pursue STEM Learning" ==== Stevens, Sally., et al. “Motivating Young Native American Students to Pursue STEM Learning Through a Culturally Relevant Science Program.” Journal of Science Education & Technology, vol. 25, no. 6, Dec. 2016, pp. 947–960.

This research paper outlines the development, deployment and outcomes of a hybrid STEM program, iSTEMthat was meant to increase engagement in STEM learning amongst Native American elementary school children. The authors discuss relevant statistics about the lack of Native American representation in STEM careers and the various educational approaches that they incorporated into iSTEM. The two main parts of the program were in-school mentoring and out-of-school informal science education through field trips. The theoretical basis for the program was the Funds of Knowledge framework, which enables educators and mentors to tailor learning experiences to the child’s personal cultural and linguistic background. This framework and the methods included in this study are relevant to my Sector research because they constitute a unique, contemporary approach to incorporating STEM in indigenous education. Again, I can use this study to learn about the possibilities and limitations of different STEM curricula, and apply it to my own practice experience.

==== 6. "Native Philosophies as the Basis for Secondary Science Curriculum" ==== Johnson, Stephany RunningHawk. “Native Philosophies as the Basis for Secondary Science Curriculum.” Critical Education, vol. 9, no. 16, Oct. 2018, pp. 84–96.

This article is written from the perspective of an academic about the need for the adoption of Native philosophies in secondary science education in order to make STEM more accessible to Native American students. The author points out that Western science presents a narrow worldview and perpetuates colonial models. The article argues that Native philosophies, such as Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK), could contribute and diversify current Western STEM curriculum. In particular, the article emphasizes the benefits that could be gained from a more holistic, place-based, collaborative STEM curriculum. I found the author’s justification and use of terminology, such as “Native philosophy”and “Indigenous realism,”very interesting. The article concludes by advocating for an approach to STEM where Native students first reaffirm their traditional knowledge and then build on that by adding Western paradigms. Reading this article was very enjoyable and I felt that it brought together many of my other Sector articles. I will use the terminology and models outlined to add to my Sector Wikipedia article. I will also consider the many problems and potentials this article outlines and apply them to my own experience of designing a STEM curriculum for Native students. Overall, I found this article to be a good combination of theoretical background and tangible real-world examples.

==== 7. "The Makerspace Movement: Sites of Possibilities for Equitable Opportunities to Engage Underrepresented Youth in STEM" ==== Barton, Angela Calabrese, et al. “The Makerspace Movement: Sites of Possibilities for Equitable Opportunities to Engage Underrepresented Youth in STEM.” TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD, vol. 119, no. 6.

This research paper examines the potential of the new “maker movement”to make STEM more accessible to minority youth. The paper discusses the makerspace movement and the mobilities of learning framework. To support the discussion, the authors draw on their own research, a two-year critical ethnography that engaged 36 youth in a making setting. The main finding of the study is that makerspaces are not inherently democratizing, but through expanding engagement and making equity the priority, makerspaces do have the potential to be a supportive, out-of-class space where minority students can learn STEM. I found the discussion about making as directly linked to history and power insightful. Also, the discussion about the role of experts in makerspaces and how that complicates the power dynamic tied into my Methodologies assignment research very neatly. This study does not specifically address Native American youth, but I think it is still very applicable to my Sector research. One of the graduate students in my practice experience organization is currently working on co-designing a makerspace with the Pinoleville Pomo Nation tribe, so this article is helpful in informing my understanding of her project.

Extra Sources
==== 1. "Collaborations between Tribal and Nontribal Organizations" ==== Joffrion, Elizabeth, and Natalia Fernández. “Collaborations between Tribal and Nontribal Organizations: Suggested Best Practices for Sharing Expertise, Cultural Resources, and Knowledge.” The American Archivist, vol. 78, no. 1, 2015, pp. 192–237. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/43489614.

This article explores how successful relationships can be built between tribal and nontribal organizations. The article outlines the specifics of a study that investigated the success and failure factors of tribal and nontribal collaboration. The authors develop a framework for collaboration that they deem the best based on the results of their study. This article is very relevant to my practice experience because it describes exactly the type of work that the CARES team does. I want to learn more about the best practices and difficulties of this specific type of collaborative work. Some of the key lessons that the article describes could definitely be used to flesh out the collaborative education approach described in my Sector Wikipedia article.

==== 2. "Tribal Housing, Codesign, and Cultural Sovereignty" ==== Edmunds, David S., et al. “Tribal Housing, Codesign, and Cultural Sovereignty.” Science, Technology, & Human Values, vol. 38, no. 6, 2013, pp. 801–828. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/43671157.

This article is actually written by the CARES team that I will be working with for my practice experience. The article describes the initial project that the team was involved in, which was the co-designing of culturally appropriate, sustainable housing. This article is obviously relevant to my practice-experience because it outlines the innovative co-design method that the organization still uses to this day. Furthermore, it enables me to better understand the motivations and contexts within which the Pinoleville Pomo Nation people view this project. The innovative co-design method that the team used for architecture could be applied to education as well. Therefore, I think it could be an interesting addition to my Wikipedia article. This idea of “democratizing the scientific process” could fit very well into contemporary indigenous education talk.

==== 3. Street Science: Community Knowledge and Environmental Health Justice ==== Corburn, Jason. Street Science : Community Knowledge and Environmental Health Justice, MIT Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.libproxy.berkeley.edu/lib/berkeley-ebooks/detail.action?docID=3338513

Area
In researching for my Area article I found that the political relationship between the US government and Native American tribes greatly influences tribal education.

Tribal sovereignty is not an easy term to define, as it is complicated by the unique relationship between the US and Native American tribes. The idea of tribal sovereignty and the envisioned indigenous land can be broken down into four distinct spaces: tribal sovereignty within reservations, co-management of off-reservation resources, generic tribal sovereignty in the US, and a hybrid indigenous space. Tribal sovereignty within reservations encompasses the debate between the US government and tribes about how much jurisdiction and independence Native Americans are granted on reservations. Multiple Supreme Court cases have laid the groundwork for how this is defined. However, Native Americans have not only fought for their rights on reservations, but also off-reservations. Many tribes feel that they should have a say in how the land and environment in their area is managed. However, the US government is reluctant to give them this power because it would imply coequal sovereignty. The third political space that has emerged from tribal sovereignty is the idea of a pan-Indian nation state. An idea that expands tribal sovereignty to include all tribes, even those not formally living on reservations. Finally, the hybrid indigenous space delineates the boundaries of the debate around dual citizenship and how being a part of two nation-states at the same time has shaped Native American livelihood. Does being a citizen of the US and exercising those rights undermine the fight for tribal sovereignty?

Education, to Native Americans, represents oppression and forced assimilation, but also the path to independence and success. A branch of tribal self-determination is rooted in the desire for independent, tribal education. In the early 1800s some independent tribal schools existed in the Southeast. However, all of these schools closed when aggressive, anti-Indian laws were passed (The Indian Removal Act of 1830, the Dawes Act of 1887, and the Curtis Act of 1898). After this, Native Americans attended boarding schools and other public schools that aimed to assimilate them. The idea of independent tribal schools reemerged in the 1960s, and tribes began experimenting with different school models. The passage of the Indian Self- Determination and Educational Assistance Act in 1975 was a monumental step towards granting tribes more control over their education systems.

Although more independent tribal schools exist today, there is still much progress to be made in terms of developing appropriate curriculum and training teachers. The experience of Native students in schools is informed by their history, and teachers must learn to contextualize their students' experiences as partially rooted in historical trauma. Specific issues that Native students face cannot be addressed by colonial educational models. There are some main considerations to inform pedagogical approaches. First, it has been shown that Native students benefit from having a close relationship with a mentor who cares about their well-being and educational success. Secondly, the incorporation of traditional educational practices, such as the incorporation of active learning and community experts into curricula, greatly improves Native students' academic performance. Finally, Native students benefit the most from educational settings that are culturally-specific and sensitive, while also attuned to mainstream values (success in the job market).

1.     Manuelito – Role of Education in Self-Determination

·     self-determination through education is a double edged sword: used as a tool of forced assimilation and obliteration of languages and cultures, and at the same time Native American nations, especially youth strive to maintain sovereignty, cultures and languages through formal education, a way to protect their rights

·     Community-based education is unique because it enables colonized people to operationalize self-determination, allows Indigenous people to shape their future

·     1819, five southeastern tribes: Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek and Seminole established 200 schools amongst themselves, success because of local control over educational systems and bilingual programs

·     Indian Removal Act of 1830, Dawes Act of 1887, Curtis Act of 1898 obliterated these tribally controlled schools

·     Boarding schools in the early 1900s were insensitive and were meant to eradicate languages/cultures, grim conditions

·     1965 Navajo Education Department launched new era for Indian education – joined forces with OEO, BIA, DINE to establish Rough Rock Demonstration School, the first school to be by locally elected, all-Indian board and the first to incorporate native language and culture instruction

·     1968 Navajo Community College, Dine College, was established, became the first tribally controlled community college

·     1971 Coalition of Indian-Controlled Schools created, supported the passage of 1975 Indian Self-Determination and Educational Assistance Act

·     Current statistic?

·     Indigenous epistemologies are often missing from formal schooling of Indigenous youth, also absent from teacher preparation programs

·     2001 No Child Left Behind Act and recent English-only ballot initiatives in many states makes it even more difficult to adopt culturally relevant curriculum

·     Case study: Ramah Navajo community-controlled school, which has operated since 1970

·     Most American Indian nations surrendered their lands to the US government with the condition that formal education be a part of the treaty, Navajo Treaty of 1868 stipulated that classrooms/a teacher would be provided for every 30 Navajo children.

·     Landmark court case: Ramah Navajo School Board, Inc v. Bureau of Revenue, US Supreme Court ruled in favor of Navajo School Board, against the state of New Mexico which sought to impose a gross tax receipt on the newly constructed Pine Hill School. First case under the Indian Self-Determination Act, established that Indian tribes and organizations were protected from state intrusions.

·     Ramah Navajo concept of self-determination: considered a road, involves being proactive, not bragging, communal goal (contrary to Anglo-American notions of self-determination)

·     Four processes: community-based planning, maintaining an awareness of self, being proactive and persevering

·     Land and formal education share characteristics to the Ramah Navajo: livelihood and survival

·     Navajo education: moral responsibility to self, others and the environment, actively practicing spirituality and heeding ancestral teachings

For Essay

·     Research informed by author’s role as a Navajo researcher from the community, inside knowledge, unique advantage from shared life experience with community being studied

·     This article gives historical background and a case study, relatable to PPN because similar small tribe that is attempting to take control of their education. I’m curious as to how Pomo epistemology differs from Navajo?

·     What are some challenges that the Pomo nation is facing in terms of educational self-determination? Did NCLB have an effect on Ukiah High School?

2.     Hopkins– Reports from the Field: American Indian Self-determination

·     Funding/control of schools comes from higher level (federal, state, tribal, church) but school remains important at local level

·     2001 No Child Left Behind Policy, OIEP began to develop culture and language portion, was dropped, the budget of developing a separate Indian education program, so all BIA-funded schools had to follow the NCLB program of their state

·     Because NCLB was implemented at state level, Indian community-controlled schools had to assume responsibility for state-level tasks without extra funding, of course worsened their performance, put a strain on the schools and dropped their funding even lower

·     BIE oversees 183 elementary, secondary, residential and peripheral dormitories in 23 states, 126 of these schools are tribally-controlled, 57 are operated by the BIE (2014)

·     BIE also oversees two postsecondary schools: Haskell Indian Nations University and Southwestern Indian Polytechnic Institute (2014)

·     In past/today Indian community-controlled schools receive their basic funding from the Interior Department (BIA-BIE), NCLB directly linked funding to test scores, pressured schools to adhere to the programs for fear of loss of funding

For Essay

·     Political policies sometimes undermine/ignore language and culture concerns of local schools (this is what I don’t want happen at PPN)

·     In 1973, BIA thought closing boarding schools would be a good idea, locals did not support decision to close schools, were ignored

·     Non-Indian, non-educator Interior Department officials are often the ones making the decisions

·     How did NCLB affect Ukiah High School? How can universities play a role in this type of uninformed policy making?

3. McKinley, Brayboy et al.– Sovereignty and Education (extra source)

·     Education of indigenous peoples is intrinsically intertwined with the legal/political relationship between indigenous people and the US gov

·     American Indians, represent more than 560 distinct federally recognized tribes (tribal nations) and at least half as many distinct state-recognized groups (Census 2007)

·     Self-determination refers to the manner in which Indigenous communities exercise their right to determine and pursue their destiny

·     Ancient knowledge contains the essence of sovereignty, children must be educated with this

·     Educational institutions must address institutional-specific issues related to recruitment, retention of graduation of Indian students

For Essay

“Throughout this report, we use Indigenous, American Indian, Alaska Native, Native American, and Native Hawaiian interchangeably to represent a population of peoples who are the descendants of the original inhabitants of the lands that now comprise North and South America as well as parts of the lands in the Pacific region of the world.”

-discuss terminology, PPN is a sovereign nation, still so dependent on government, Fraser

4. Adams– Education for Extinction

·     1883- four philanthropic, prominent organizations that were resolved to addressing the Indian problem: Indian Rights Association, Board of Indian Commission, Boston Indian Citizenship Association, Women’s National Indian Association

·     1883 Lake Mohonk Conference – philanthropist, elite gathered to discuss as “friends of the Indian”

·     Civilization has always been an underlying assumption of nation’s Indian policy, prescriptive – told them how Indians should be educated

·     1881 Carl Schurz – Indians were confronted with “this stern alternative: extermination or civilization”

·     Reformers saw the solution to the Indian problem in three areas: land, law and education

·     Education: Indians must be taught the knowledge and values of Christian civilization, education was viewed as the seedbed of republican virtues and national harmony

·     Justifications: elderly cannot be civilized, start with the youth, quicken the process of cultural evolution, economic: prepare them for self-sufficiency, less expensive to educate them than to kill them

·     First priority: read, write, speak English, civilized branches of knowledge – science, history, arithmetic, art

·     Second: Individualized (Protestant worth), teach them to work, teach them to value private property

·     Third: Christianization

·     Fourth: citizenship training

5. Oppelt– Tribally Controlled Indian Colleges

History of Indian Higher Education

·     Harvard College – first institute of higher education in the colonies, one of the objectives was schooling of the Indians. Second building on campus was known as Indian College; however, only 3-5 Indian students attended the Indian College during its existence

·     Dartmouth was first college founded primarily for educating American Indians

·     In 1819, US gov made first grant towards Indian education and civilization, $10,000

·     1825, Choctaw Academy in Kentucky was founded – most significant educational institution for Indians in the US, although supported by the Church, there was much more involvement of the Choctaw leaders in administration, was progressive and successful for its time

·     Missionary period of Indian education was a failure, primary motivation was to Christianize

·     Little mention of higher education – several early colonial colleges (Harvard, William and Mary, Dartmouth, Hamilton) were established in part for the education of Indians

·     1888-1912, conflict between Protestants and Catholics over control of the Indian schools - 1869, Catholics saw an opportunity to play a larger role in missionary education – sought contracts for mission schools, great increase in number of schools, Protestants saw this as a threat to their system, preached strong anti-Catholic views

·     Result of this religious conflict – missionary schools decreased, federal influence over schools increased – inadequate schooling

·     Literacy rates decreased significantly after missionary and tribal schools closed

·     Dawes Act of 1887 – took away Indian land holdings, tribal lands that could have supported schools were lost

·     1879 – establishment of boarding schools for American Indians, enrolled 200 young Indians in the Carlisle Indian School, trade school, used an “outing system” where young Indians were placed in white homes for summers to promote assimilation, main goal is assimilation

·     Trade skills were not very useful upon return, some rejected by their tribe

·     Carlisle Indian School set precedent for off-reservation boarding schools that were the predominant form of Indian education for the next 50 years, characteristics: removal of young Indians from homes (sometimes forced), work and study curriculum, military discipline, emphasis on agricultural and industrial arts for boys and homemaking girls, located at former military posts

·     1870- 1920 great increase in federal responsibility for Indian elementary/secondary schools, no postsecondary schools

·     1950s and 1960s recognition that tribes should have some say in their education emerged, by 1962 estimated number of Indians enrolled in colleges had reached 4000, double ten years before, not the same rate of college graduates

·     1870-1968 – no postsecondary institutions with Indian planned and controlled curriculum

American Indian Higher Education in the 1960s: Self-Determination Beginning

·     Education Act of 1965, Title II provided for the development of institutions of higher education for minority students, few grants were made directly to tribal colleges

·     1968 – Navajo Tribe founded Navajo Community College (NCC) big step towards educational self determination – set a precedent for Indian controlled community colleges on/near reservations

·     1971 passage of Navajo Community College Assistance Act provided federal funds for support of the community college members, financial stability

·     Contributing to Navajo teachers: 50% are in education and 78% have returned to reservation

·     1980 only 5% of teachers were Navajo on the reservation –still much work to be done, faces obstacles of funding and administration

·     Broader cultural conflict within education: how much emphasis should be placed on cultural studies versus academic preparation for further education in white culture, preserving traditions versus

·     P. 50!! For essay!About debates

·     1968-78: 15 more such community colleges were founded

·     19 tribally controlled colleges chartered between 1968-1979: Oglala Sioux Community College, Sinte Gleska College, Standing Rock Community College, Cheyenne River Community College, Turtle Mountain Chippewa, Nebraska Indian Community College, Little Hoop Community College, Sisseton-Wahpeton Community College, Fort Berthold Community College, Blackfeet Community College, Fort Peck Community College, Dull Knife Memorial College, Little Big Horn Community College, Salish Kootenai College, Lummi Community College, Ojibwa Community College

·     Various characteristics, some struggled and closed

·     Commonalities: tribally chartered governing boards, predominantly Indian student bodies, isolated locations, transmit tribal culture, practical curriculum for contemporary needs, service oriented

·     Factors of their development: 1) federal, religiously controlled schools have been inadequate in meeting educational needs 2) emergence of self-determination concept 3) need for new skills and knowledge on reservations to develop Indian natural/human resources

·     Other higher education opportunities: public, private and federal 2 year colleges, four year colleges

·     BIE operates two postsecondary institutions for Native Americans: Haskell Indian Nations University and the Southwest Indian Polytechnic Institute ( https://www.bia.gov/bie )

·     What does higher education look like for PPN?

6. Deyhle– Research in American Indian and Alaska Native Education (good for Area & Sector)

·     400 treaties, exchange of nearly 1 billion acres of land in for protection, services ex. Education

·     Today, more tribal schools than BIA-operated schools in the BIA system

·     Boarding school studies: assimilation was “incomplete” for most Indians, many Indian youth developed a strong ethnic identity with peers from other tribes – pan-Indian identity

·     Most boarding are now closed, 85% of Indian youth are in public schools, assimilationist policies still evident in curriculum

·     Educational research – researchers don’t have long-term commitment to community – has pointed out deficiencies in Indian students and families instead of critiquing the assimilatory models (interesting!! Like “people” view of poverty, but in terms of education)

·     “Deficit mode” was dominant research method until 1960s, when community-based ethnographic/long-term studies promoted “cultural difference” model that accounted for power relations

·     Culturally focused research – educational success/failure from Indian students perspective, describe recent initiatives conduct relevant research

·     Literature review of past studies

·     Categories of research: intelligence, urban migrants, teachers, parents, cultural deprivation, language barrier, school, stereotypes

·     Argument: problems in Indian education not entirely situated in individual/home, but shared by schools and society

Deficit Studies

·     Deficit thought assumed that American Indian children lacked innate intelligence, psychological tests were administered (questioned in the 1920s)

·     Attitudes/beliefs of inferiority contributed to self-fulfilling prophesy

·     Database pointing to poor achievement of Indian children was built up in the 1930s, many major universities contributed to this research (!! Important for PE – distrust of universities)

·     “Crossover” effect – interesting psychological phenomena that emerged from research, Indian students in upper grades who had been achieving above/at their White peers “cross over” and begin to do poorly, more recent research on crossover effect argued that in school contexts that are supportive “crossover” does not occur

·     Scarcity of research directed toward teachers compared to other aspects of Indian education

·     Described parents as “apathetic” and a bad influence, later the “apathetic parents” became more clearly understood as “resistant parents”

·     1960s cultural deprivation term used as a vogue term to justify poor academic achievement as a result of limited background

·     “Dropout” already a deficit positioning

·     On a national level, very little information about overall dropout rates, 1969 Kennedy Report found that dropout rates were twice the national average, 1991 estimate ranging from 35.5% - 50%

·     Two theories for “why” dropout: “cultural discontinuity theory” assumes that culturally based differences in styles, behaviors lead to misunderstandings/failures (microscale), “sociostructural theory” explains school failure (macroscale) with the racial stratification of US society and economy (Again Sector!)

·     Native language and cultures correlate positively with school success

·     Culturally-sensitive curriculum not the sole key to increasing American Indian school success, community ethnic identity and family support is also important

Cultural Difference Theory

·     Anthropological and sociological study, difficulties in schools are linked to differences between home and school, views cultural differences as strengths

·     Native children learn by observing and imitating the actions of elders, better at visual tasks and worse at tasks with verbal content, they are not given verbal instructions

·     Power relations are critical to understanding American Indian students’ performance in school

·     Conflicts regarding Indian learning styles, Indian students are visual learners and prefer cooperative learning (Sector Debates! According to these authors)

Resistance Theory

·     Resistance theory allows us to consider educational results of assimilatory policy – resistance students created, problematic teacher-student relations

Community-Based Education

·     Political and economic self-determination mattered in schooling/language in analysis of school success

·     Since passage of the Indian Education Act in 1972 and the Indian Education and Self-Determination Act in 1975, Indian people have started teaching languages/cultures again in their tribally controlled schools

·     Bilingual Education Act (BEA) in 1967 allowed for community-controlled bilingual programs

·     1992 Native American Languages Act strengthened protection of Native Languages

·     The act recognized "the right of Indian tribes and other Native American governing bodies to use the Native American languages as a medium of instruction in all schools funded by the Secretary of the Interior”

·     One of first and best-known American Indian bilingual program to develop written native language and grant certificates was the Hualapai project at Peach Springs in NW Arizona – countered the “crossover” effect

·     Self-determination has also influenced research – controlled by the tribes, established review process for research requests by American Indian/non-AI researchers

·     American Indian scholars are important to self-determination and empowerment

·     Research is a partnership between researcher and the community, over time

7. Franks– Hoop of Learning (better for Sector?)

·     School experiences are negatively shaped by settler colonialism and historical trauma

·     Alternative educational frameworks improve overall well-being

·     Neoliberalism – emphasis on individual and efficiency, uniquely affects Indigenous students, education seen as a commodity – profit over well-being, little incentive to accommodate students who cannot/will not adhere to institutional standards/cannot pay

·     Historical trauma cannot be addressed by colonial education models

·     Legacy of colonial violence through intergenerational trauma

·     Neoliberal education model risks reproducing colonial dichotomy civilization vs. savagery

·     Considerations: 1) Native students benefit from close relationships with educators invested in well-being/heritage 2) learning outcomes are better when curricula incorporate active learning/knowledge from community, TEK 3) environments that adapt to cultural distinctiveness and prepare them for success in mainstream settings

8. Seelau– Regaining Control Over the Children

·     5.2 million people identify as American Indian/Native Alaskan (2010 Census)

·     Younger population – median age of 29.5 compared to 36.8 for general population

·     State and federal policies affect youth: education, welfare, juvenile justice, used for assimilation

·     Legal policies have moved away from assimilation towards self-determination

·     Argument: meaningful exercise of tribal self-determination will undo effects of assimilation and create strong Native societies

·     Policies like NCLB make educators focus on budgets/test scores rather than barriers that Native youth face

·     Data is conflicted, but estimated that 24-45% of NA/AN drop out of school before graduating high school, twice as many as any other racial/ethnic group in the US

·     Underrepresented at bachelor’s, master’s and doctoral education levels

·     P. 83!

·     For more than 150 years missionary schools were the primary way of spreading Christianity/Western culture, Congress’s financial support, not big changes

·     Missionary groups ran boarding schools during most 1800s, but federal control increased

·     By 1838, federal government oversaw approximately 2900 students in 87 boarding schools and 6 manual-training schools (reference Tribally controlled colleges)

·     According to BIA, federal boarding schools were meant to: 1) replace native language with English 2) replace communal ethics with individualistic ethics 3) Christianize 4) teach US history, democracy and Manifest Destiny (similar to Education for Extinction)

·     1928 Meriam Report was published, boarding schools came under heavy criticism, advised BIA to abandon assimilationist goals, little effect

·     Years following Indian Education Act 1972 and Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act 1975 – established more than 75 tribally-operated primary/secondary schools, more than 24 community colleges and stronger presence in higher education through American Indian Studies programs etc…

·     Nation Building Model (aka Nation Building Model for Community and Economic Development)– encourages Native nations to reflect on community needs and incorporate cultural values into institutions:

·     1) Make own decisions, practical sovereignty/self-rule 2) reinforce their decisions with effective governing institutions 3) institutions must match own political cultures 4) strategic orientation when making decisions 5) Native leadership necessary (developed by Harvard Project and NNI)

Sector
Thus far I have learned that patience and communication are key to any sort of collaborative process. I also have a better understanding of the potential benefits and drawbacks that technology could pose for Native American tribes. Potential benefits of technology include a platform upon which to promote Native American voices. Additionally, technology could help preserve and pass on culture and language. However, technology can also be viewed as an assimilation tool. Some Native Americans fear that exposure to mainstream culture through technology will distance the younger generations from traditional culture. I would like to continue to look into how technology can be integrated into tribal education in a productive manner.

Science and the experiments and activities that are done, depend very much on who does them. A diversity in scientists and critical thinkers is necessary in order to be able to have a more complete understanding. However, there are many barriers that Native American students face in entering STEM fields. One factor is that the curriculum of STEM classes often ignores the cultural taboos of Native Americans. In the study done by Williams and Shipley, they found that "50% of survey respondents generally observe tribal taboos, 38% would choose not to pursue a science major if they knew or suspected that doing so would require them to violate an important tribal taboo, and 67% would be more likely to take science classes if the science curriculum was more respectful of tribal taboos." This shows that small changes in curricula or professors attitudes could diversify the STEM field a lot.

1. Adcock– Technology Integration in American Indian Education

·     Summary: literature review of current efforts to integrate technology in Native American schools, larger discourse of digital equity, stories of tech creativity and health, frameworks for discussion about how tech can support/strengthen Native students

·     Argument: current literature represents a narrow view of technology integration in Native American education

·     Technology double-edged sword, loaded: advanced cultural preservation and economic/educational dev., but has also been used as an assimilation tool

·     Current culture labels Native Americans “technologically incompetent”

·     Tribes have used tech in the past: written languages, ecological tools, printed newspapers, video, television, radio, multimedia to preserve languages

·     Current question: how to best use digital tools to revitalize culture/language, while also preparing students to engage in the modern, digital world?

·     American Indian/Alaskan Native faculty make up less than one percent of higher education faculty according to fall 2009 data

·     Incomplete/inadequate research in this area

·     NCES found that among American Indian 16-24 year olds, 15 percent drop out of school, compared to 9.9 percent average nationally (2011)

·     Number of Native adults with less than ninth-grade education is dropping, tribes continue to increase control over education

·     2005: 34 tribal college institutions in 14 states joined to form American Indian High Education Consortium

·     http://www.aihec.org/who-we-are/index.htm : today AIHEC covers 37 colleges/universities, 1973 the first six tribally controlled colleges founded the AIHEC

·     Number of Native American students attending tribal colleges 30,000+ in 2011

·     Important to recognize issues of equity in access/content creation when talking about technology/empowerment

·     Placing technology in a classroom does not get rid of gaps/barriers for Native learners, reinforces low-level thinking and stereotypes

·     Access to technology in a constructive framework that values critical thinking is the key

·     Students’ experience with technology in school mirrors usage at home

·     White, middle-class students are gaining access to Internet more regularly, create content at a 2 to 1 pace compared to minorities

·     Issues of digital equity: appropriating resources for infrastructure maintenance, connectivity, standards to protect sacred tribal information, promote tribal goals

·     Current projects: language acquisition and preservation through bilingual dictionaries, web pages, newsletters, font types, online radio, claymations and Adobe softwarde

·     Case study: St. Regis Mohawk Tribe: used computer language center platforms such as Rosetta Stone language software, Nintendo DSi audio recordings, electronic flashcards, games to teach Mohawk language

·     Elders in tribal communities fear that exposure to technology will result in assimilation

·     Technology could serve as a cultural capital that bridges gap between culture of tribally-controlled schools and dominant culture

·     Digital storytelling: spaces for Native students to be change agents, controlling representation

·     Case Study: Alaska curriculum MapTEACH for middle/high schoolers combines geoscience with traditional landscape knowledge using Geographic Information Systems tech (GIS)

Frameworks:

·     TPACK: technological-pedagogical-content knowledge model, effective teaching integrates tech, pedagogy and content in a manner that focuses on the question “why?”, can expand this model to include the context of teaching (relevant for Native students), does not fully situate tech within tribal consciousness

·     TC3: technology, community, communication and culture model, local control over technologies, selective based on context, underdeveloped for classroom, for large tech

·     Four Directions Project: 5 year, federally-funded project with 19 Native American schools that focused on use of tech to support culturally responsive curriculum, community based values and content, pedagogy around constructive learning, co-creators and learners, culturally responsive pedagogy, world as a classroom

·     Native Science Academy (NSA) brought together tribes for discussion

·     Relationship between tech and tribalism: political consciousness, larger community goal

2. Medin and Bang– Culturally Based Science Education

·     Western education models are not hospitable to indigenous epistemologies: for example, a child who has been taught to provide context before a statement will get cut off by another child who shouts out the answer directly

·     Native Americans are underrepresented by a factor of at least 3-4 in STEM disciplines, in ten years from 1997 only 0.3 percent of STEM degrees were awarded to Native American scholars

·     Various diversity – people, practices, languages, epistemologies, goals…is an asset for STEM – different ways of thinking

·     Education, assumption is that the epistemologies that students bring to class are inferior to researcher/educator

·     The understanding of core bio concept “alive” shifts depending on context for Native students

·     Different orientations/contexts navigated by Native students differently

·     Lack of recognition of science as set of cultural practices, explicitly teaches Native students that their own practices are not recognized in school

·     “culture” and “science” are stereotypic and simplistic

·     Building science curriculum “adding culture to it” has failed because it assumes that the two are separate

·     Argument: cultural practices/knowledge must be the foundation of a community-based science curriculum (how can this be done by a person like me, outsider?)

·     Characteristics of community-based curriculum: local, place-based instruction, hands-on experiences 2) linking program to community participation/practices 3) seeing humans as part of nature 4) system-thinking 5) cyclical perspective 6) holistic perspective of science, multiple perspectives 7) exploring tension between Western/Native science 8) science in a policy/community context, emphasize participation/leadership

·     American Indian students should be supported/encouraged to navigate multiple epistemologies

3. Williams and Shipley– Cultural Taboos as a Factor

·     Methods: literature review, survey of 96 students (42 tribes), four faculty interviews

·     Results: 50% observe tribal taboos, 38% would choose not to pursue science major if it would require violation of taboos, 67% would be more likely to take science classes if curriculum was respectful of taboos

·     Increasing diversity in STEM supports critical thinking, improves problem solving, increases creativity and competitiveness (like Bang and Medin)

·     2012, Native Americans were 1.7% of population, accounted for only 0.6% of bachelor’s degrees, 0.4% of master’s degrees and 0.2% of doctoral degrees in science and engineering

·     May not be so much about culturally relevant framework, but also about culturally sensitive classroom/lab experience

·     “Taboo” strong cultural warning/prohibition against action

·     Human and animal dissections were the most problematic STEM activities (snakes)

·     Results: 30% said that if they violated tribal taboo it would cause difficulty with a family member

·     Many taboos cannot be accommodated for without sacrificing rigor/content, but many main taboos could be easily addressed, providing alternatives to disections, removing certain animals from displays etc…

4. Miller et al.– Fostering Indigenous STEM Education

·     Indigenizationof educational paradigm as relates to American Indian students

·     Indigenous knowledge revolves around the idea that everything is interconnected, holistic, challenges compartmentalized way of Western education

·     “Collateral learning” when students are able to construct scientific and Indigenous concepts in harmony

·     STEM is not acultural, dichotomy between western modern science (WMS) and traditional ecological knowledge (TEK)

·     STS: Science, technology, society approach: science as inquiry, students explore a problem/question that is relevant/meaningful to them, human experiential context with the science

·     Features of STS: 1) Student ID problems with local impact 2) use of local resources (human & material) 3) active involvement in information seeking 4) learning beyond classroom 5) focus on individual impact on student 6) science content is more than tests 7) process skills 8) career awareness 9) citizenship role 10) ID science/tech future impact 11) autonomy in learning process

·     Place-based education approach: considers characteristics associated with unique geographic location, engages outside school setting

·     Author’s included tribal elder in activity planning

·     Adventure learning: grounded in experiential, inquiry-based learning, students become active participants, bring context and content together, collaborative, media/internet-driven

·     Game of snow snakes: carved piece of wood travels along a snow/ice track when thrown, farthest thrown snow snake is the winner, context for AL project – potential for tribal tradition/STEM engagement

·     Constructed snow snake curriculum with tribal elders and university personnel (like PE!)

·     AL model used to design curriculum, phases: explore local/academic knowledge, design and test prototypes, create full-scale snow snake, body mechanics, celebration

·     Hardship close to problems: relevant element of indigenous education framework and a feature of the STS framework

·     Internet/media – sharing resources, brought alive curriculum, various learning opportunities

·     Teachers need appropriate support

5. Stevens et al.– Motivating Youth Native American Students

·     Study reports on dev, delivery and outcome of iSTEMprogram, based on culturally relevant theoretical framework – Funds of Knowledge

·     Combined 1) in-school mentoring (Native American community member, university student, STEM professional) 2) out of school informal science education experience to foster engagement in STEM

·     Practices that increase students’ interest in STEM 1) caring adults 2) critical thinking, collaboration, small group work 3) content with real-world application, hands-on learning 4) STEM opportunities

·     Mentoring – longer and stronger relationships yield greater impact, need for training and ongoing support of mentors/mentees crucial

·     In STEM, mentoring helps alleviate anxiety about networking, preparation and culture shock

·     Out-of-school STEM activities important strategy for increasing diversity in STEM, develop understanding and increase later pursuit, safe environment

·     FK: Funds of Knowledge framework, helps mentors and other adults identify “hidden resources” of student to understand cultural/linguistic background, tailor learning to that

6. Johnson– Native Philosophies as the Basis for Secondary Science Curriculum

·     Concepts: relatedness, TEK (Traditional Ecological Knowledge), place, indigenous realism, pluralism found in Native philosophies

·     Native students find barriers in engaging with STEM because it is dismissive/opposition with their Native worldviews

·     Basing STEM curriculum in Native science and philosophies is movement towards self-determination/decolonization

·     Western science education consensus is that there is one objective way “to do science”, ignores cultural aspects

·     “the ideology of western science, wedded as it is to the thesis of value-neutrality, insists that issues of power do not enter into knowledge making or shape the dynamics of knowledge systems”

·     Science is not value neutral or objective, how science and education is done is a reflection of who is doing it

·     Western STEM models that contradict Native science: individual endeavor, singular focus is on the humans, for the benefit of the humans, separate from the natural world

·     Curriculums in schools perpetuate colonial practices/dominant culture – decolonize

·     Curriculum documents privilege

·     “Native science” is used as a finite entity, problematic because there are many different philosophies, easy category to use to differentiate from Western educational philosophy

·     Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK): originates from within/from a place, land and place taught indigenous people over generations, basis for languages, cultures and worldviews

·     “Indigenous entities—environments, bodies, stem cell lines, identities, historical and contemporary practices, lores, laws, values and belief systems, knowledge frameworks, ways of thinking and knowing, products and creations, concepts, designs and materials, images and representations, songs, a performance, visual arts – and all the other diverse parts of whole living cultures”

·     “Indigenous realism” the recognition of the relationships and relatives that are a part of the complex web of life, all things are connected

·     Aspects that Western STEM curriculum should incorporate: collaborative concept, how place can teach us/why we should learn from place, expanded understanding of who counts as a member of the community: inclusive to non-humans, non-Whites, plural epistemology

·     Stories could be integrated into STEM classes to understand different perspective and to connect empirical knowledge

·     Combining Western and Native science seems at first paradoxical

·     Can be done: look at science through pluralistic lens, no “one” way, privilege Native science for Native students

·     “Doubly educated” Native students know tribal ways and also Western science paradigm

·     Native students should first ender into science by reaffirming TEK/Native ways, and then build on it by adding Western paradigms – find science more applicable

·     Empower Native students to be able to make the choice consciously between participating in their tribal setting or participating in the dominant cultural setting, education without assimilation (essay)

·     Expand questions asked in STEM from just “How does it work? What does it use?” to “What does it mean? Why does it matter?”

·     Use local place names, stories, community-based research

·     Western science is not bad it’s just incomplete

·     By teaching Native philosophy in STEM – move indigenous people towards self-determination, controlling their own land and resources

7. Barton et al.– Makerspace Movement

·     “maker movement” potential to break down barriers in learning/attainment in STEM, “democratizing effects”

·     Two-year critical ethnography, 36 youth over two years

·     3 forms of engagement supported youths’ engagement: critical, connected and collective

·     Making is always linked to individual/histories: who can/cannot make, whose knowledge matters…questions of power influence the space (essay)

·     This article talks about other minorities in the US (African American and Latino youth) and their underrepresentation in STEM

·     Lower income communities of color experience the most environmental injustice and have little voice in STEM-related decisions

·     Maker movement: attempt to organize resources, attention and people around maker communities/practices, DIY, STEM is creative and playful

·     Movement remains an adult, white, middle-class activity, led by those with leisure time, technical knowledge, and resources, little research on how it could be more equitable,

·     Making pedagogies promote “social interaction through shared activity and play”, helpful to newcomers?

·     Making creates new forms of learning, exposes makers to practices/mindsets that are not encouraged in school – legitimizes non-school based practices, appealing to youth who feel marginalized in the school space

·     Expanded set of outcomes in learning, multidisciplinary, ground “historically feminized” practices of crafting with “masculinized” practices

·     Makerspaces have the potential to support youth in framing, unpacking and working on concerns that are relevant to their own identity/community

·     Important to study those left out still

·     Mobilities of Learning framework: sociocultural learning theory, learning is expansive, vertical and horizontal movement, learning takes form as ideas, tools, practices are re-mixed

·     Emphasizes the way individuals navigate/bridge worlds of home, school and community

·     Calls attention to the fact that learning takes place somewhere, historically and geographically situated

·     Connected learning – collaborative learning outcomes are “value additive” –elevate individual/community together

·     Not entirely a utopic picture of makerspaces as spaces of equity – problems that complicate participation of youth

·     Tensions can arise with experts trained in formal STEM fields: youths’ progress is not linear, cannot present innovations, how do you pose a balance between expert suggestions and youths’ “own way”, experts increase expertise but also increase stakeholders

·     Connected: with and for community, collective: together for public good

·     Argument: makerspaces can support youth from minoritized communities in learning and becoming in STEM when opportunities to make are sustained/mutual – critical, connected and collective.

·     Need more dialogue

Drafting
All of the text below is my own drafting as it is a completely new section, MY COMMENTS/EXPLANATIONS ARE CAPITALIZED

Editing: Contemporary Native American issues in the United States
I WILL BE ADDING A NEW SECTION TO THIS ARTICLE. THE NEW SECTION ABOUT EDUCATION WILL GO UNDER SUBHEADING #7, BETWEEN "TRAUMA" AND "PUBLIC HEALTH". I WILL ADD SUBHEADINGS TO SEPARATE MY AREA RESEARCH AND MY SECTOR RESEARCH.

Education
The majority of Native American youth attend public schools that are not tribally controlled. For those Native Americans who view education as a means of preserving their ancient knowledge, culture and language, this raises questions about tribal self-determination.

History
Main article: Cultural assimilation of Native Americans

The first educational institutions for Native Americans were founded by missionaries. The primary objectives of missionary education were to civilize, individualize and Christianize Native American youth. Early colonial colleges, Harvard, William and Mary, Dartmouth and Hamilton, were established in part to educate Native Americans. Dartmouth College was the first college founded primarily for the education of Native Americans. Lack of support from the public and infighting amongst the missionaries led to the closure of most missionary schools in the 19th century.

During the 19th century, the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) began to fund Native American education. The BIA founded boarding schools for Native American youth that were modeled after the off-reservation Carlisle Indian Industrial School. These government-run boarding schools were located at former military posts and used an assimilationist education model. Native American students were enrolled in the "outing system," a system where they were placed in white homes to work during the summers. Between 1870 to 1920, the federal government increased its role in providing Native American elementary and secondary school education, and boarding schools became the predominant form of Native American education.

In the 1960s, the Native American self-determination movement pushed for more tribal involvement in education. The Higher Education Act of 1965 provided for the development of postsecondary institutions for minority students. The passage of the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975 gave tribes the power to control their funds for welfare and education.

Today, approximately 92 percent of Native American youth attend public schools, and approximately eight percent attend schools operated or funded by the Bureau of Indian Education (BIE). Tribally controlled education has become a key part of the Native American self-determination movement.

Tribally Controlled Schools
Further information: Tribal colleges and universities, Native American self-determination

In the early 1800s, the first tribally controlled schools were established by five Southeastern tribes: the Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Cree and Seminole. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 and other federal forced relocation policies shut down these tribally controlled schools. The next 100 years of Native American education were dominated by missionary and federal run off-reservation boarding schools.

The 1960s saw the emergence of the Native American self-determination movement and a renewed support for tribally controlled education. The Bilingual Education Act (BEA) was passed in 1968 and recognized the need for community-controlled bilingual programs.

In 1965, the Navajo Education Department in cooperation with the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), the U.S. Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO), and a nonprofit (DINE) established the first school with an all-Indian governing board—Rough Rock Community School. In 1968, Diné College (Navajo Community College originally) was established as the first tribally controlled college. Other tribes followed suit and in 1971 formed the Coalition of Indian-Controlled Schools. This coalition drove the creation and enactment of the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975.

In the years following the passage of the 1972 Indian Education Act and the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975, more than 75 tribally controlled primary and secondary schools, and 24 community colleges were established.

In 1973, the first six tribally controlled colleges joined together to found the American Indian Higher Education Consortium (AIHEC). Today, 37 tribally controlled colleges are part of the AIHEC.

The passage of the Native American Languages Act of 1990 guaranteed Native Americans the right to maintain and promote their languages and cultural systems through educational programs.

Currently, the Bureau of Indian Education (BIE) oversees 183 elementary and secondary schools, 126 of these schools are tribally controlled.

Contemporary Challenges
Further information: Native Americans and reservation inequality

Native American communities face significant educational challenges, such as inadequate school funding, lack of qualified teachers, student achievement gap, underrepresentation in higher education and high dropout rates.

Tribally controlled schools receive funding directly from the BIE. The implementation of the No Child Left Behind Act in 2001 at a state level made it so that tribally controlled schools had to assume responsibility for state-level tasks without support. The Act linked funding to test scores, which resulted in decreased funding for many tribally controlled schools.

Native American students have the lowest high school graduation rates of any minority in the United States. Dropout rates amongst Native American youth are also the highest in the nation. There is a 15 percent drop-out rate amongst Native American 16-24 year olds, compared to the national average of 9.9 percent.

Native American students are underrepresented in higher education at the bachelor's, master's and doctoral levels. The recruitment and retention of Native American students at a university level is an major issue. Native American professors are also underrepresented; they make up less than one percent of higher education faculty.

There is a need for adequately trained teachers and appropriate curriculum in Native American education. Western education models are not hospitable to indigenous epistemologies. The No Child Left Behind Act and English-only ballot initiatives make it difficult to adopt culturally relevant curriculum.

STEM Education
Tribes are attempting to incorporate Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, STEM, curriculum into their education systems, but there is as yet no consensus on how to do so.

Native Americans are underrepresented by a factor of at least four in STEM disciplines. In 2012, Native American students accounted for only 0.6 percent of bachelor's degrees, 0.4 percent of master's degrees and 0.2 percent of doctoral degrees in science and engineering.

Benefits
Some tribes have used technology to preserve their culture and languages through digital storytelling, computer language platforms, audio recordings, webpages and other forms of media.

Technology also contributes to economic and educational development. STEM knowledge helps Native youth enter into Western jobs. Increased representation in STEM fields could aid the Native American self-determination movement. Native Americans in STEM could assume the role of controlling their own land and resources.

Concerns
Native and non-native scholars have developed curricula to integrate Western knowledge with indigenous knowledge, but there is no agreement on a best approach.

The federal government has funded projects in collaboration with Native American schools that focus on the use of technology to support culturally responsive curriculum. The implementation of these technologies and curricula remains almost non-existent at an institutional level.

Elders in tribal communities often fear that exposure to technology will result in assimilation. Underrepresentation in digital content contributes to this fear.

Digital equity is a concern as tribes have to appropriate resources for technological infrastructure maintenance, develop standards to protect sacred tribal information and determine how to promote tribal goals.

STEM curriculum is often dismissive of Native worldviews. Western STEM models contradict Native science because they emphasize individuality and humans as separate from the natural world. Science curriculum does not respect cultural taboos. Native American students view human and animal dissections as the most problematic STEM activities. Research suggests that a majority of Native American students would be more likely to take STEM classes if the curriculum was more respectful of taboos.

Potential Solutions
Practices proven to increase Native student's interest in STEM are: caring mentors, hands-on learning, observational learning, collaboration, real-world applications and community involvement. Some tribal STEM programs are employing community-based science curriculum. The characteristics of community-based science curriculum are that it is local, place-based, hands-on, involves the community, incorporates system-thinking and a holistic view a science and explores multiple epistemologies.

The Science, Technology, Society (STS) model asks students to explore a problem that is relevant to them and their community. It incorporates human experiential context with science. Other models emphasize the value of incorporating Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) and "indigenous realism," the recognition of the interconnectedness of everything in nature.

The Maker culture, or maker movement, is another model that has the potential to support minority youth in learning STEM. The Hackerspace can provide a positive, non-school based STEM learning experience for youth who are marginalized in school.

Article Evaluation
** note I did the article evaluation before I finalized my article selection, so I did not end up settling on this article.

Article: Native American disease and epidemics
Since this is a very broad topic and long article, I will be concentrating on a specific section called "combating disease and epidemics" because that is the most relevant to my sector research.

Evaluation
This article is of interest to a multitude of WikiProjects including WikiProject Indigenous peoples of North America. It is rated of High-Importance, but C-Class in quality.

The introductory paragraph of this section is repetitive, and uninformative. It states multiple times that there are many programs working with Native American tribes in the area of healthcare, but it only introduces one example.

The section on legislature I think is very important, but as of now it is very scanty. There are only a few sentences and links organized in a relatively unclear manner. Especially lacking is information about modern legislature. The article just has a link to "more legislature."

The diabetes programs section does not need that uninformative, first sentence. It should just go straight into the various types of programs. I have an issue with this phrase from this section, "spread narratives of traditional health and survival in all aspects of life." This phrase needs more context. Further problematic language is used as the article uses the word "successful aim" which presents a biased point of view. The sentence about funding for the governmental efforts is not cited and should be! This section has a lot of information, which is good, but it needs to be better organized and cited.

I think it is good that the article addresses tribal efforts in their own healthcare, but I think this section should have a lot more depth. I am sure there are more than two tribal programs addressing diabetes in the nation. This section should also further explore perhaps the history/future of such tribal-led efforts.

The last sentence of the first paragraph of the HIV-AIDS programs section sounds like it was copy and pasted from the source, but it does not have quotation marks, it should be rephrased. This sentence is problematic to me, "This is in recognition of the disproportionate impact of HIV/AIDS on racial and ethnic minorities." Like many of the other sections before, this section has some good examples, but definitely not enough to provide a holistic picture.

A few sections are still clearly missing, particularly information about the various programs/treatments in place for alcoholism and mental health (two big components of Native American health). And also more information about who is doing this work: the government, non-profits, tribes etc...

The talk page includes discussion about the articles title, which I think is an interesting debate. However, beyond that there is not much on the Talk page, which suggests that not many people have read/edited this page -- a further sign that it could use work.

Final Choice: Contemporary Native American issues in the United States
After careful consideration and lots of failed attempts at drafting, I have chosen to switch to this article. I will make a new section titled "Education" under which I will summarize both my area and sector research. Prof. Talwalker and I discussed this in office hours. I will add a link to this article in both of the articles that I was previously considering (below) in order to make it more visible on Wikipedia.

Area

 * 1) Native American self-determination- This article is part of the WikiProject Indigenous peoples of North America and is rated C-Class. I will focus specifically on the section about "Education." I think it will be really beneficial for me to learn about the history and modern developments of Native American education in the US. Researching Native American education within the larger context of Native American self-determination will also help me understand my organization as a whole more.

Sector

 * 1) Indigenous education - I will be working on co-designing a Makerspace with the PPN tribe and developing a curriculum for that space. I think this article would be relevant because it details the different approaches taken to combining Western and indigenous education. This article is part of WikiProject Education and is rated Start-Class, which means that substantial editing is still needed. The overall article is somewhat confusing, and has weird sections. I will focus on and add to the section titled "21st century skills" under "Indigenous American ways of learning" because that is most relevant to my work with the Makerspace and STEAM curriculum.