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IDEA definition of LD
Specific Learning Disorder (SLD) is a disorder in one or more of the basic mental processes involved in comprehending or in using language, spoken or written, which may manifest in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations. Disorders included in this group include perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. Disorders that are excluded from this group include learning problems that are primarily the results of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, those that result from mental retardation, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage. Students with a learning disability tend to struggle to learn academic content in one or two specific academic areas and have strengths in other areas. Students with learning disabilities are defined by IDEA as having “unexpectedly” low achievement which is characterized by the discrepancy between the level of intelligence and of achievement.

Prevalence
SLD is categorized as a high incidence disability. 4.9% of school-aged population have been labeled as SLD. SLD is the largest disability categeory with more than 43% of all school-age children with disabilities falling under the SLD category.

Causal factors
Cause for LD has not been identified but contributing factors include the following:

Abnormal brain function
Research documents that brain structure in children with reading disabilities differs from typically developing peers. It is unclear which of the two is causal. While this research is interesting, there are few implications for instruction.

Genetic factors
Children born to parents with LD are 8x more likely to have LD Despite this striking correlation, it is unclear if SLD is an inherited trait or if it could be cause for predisposition of behavior (reading less to their children, for example) wherein the child's environment resulted in the disorder.

Lack of effective instruction
50% of students with LD are academically successful when they are provided high quality instruction. Additional research necessary to determine if these effects are long lasting.

Identification
Traditionally, SLD students were identified by having a severe discrepancy between achievement and ability. Students are given an achievement exam (such as the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test II) and their results are compare with an intelligence exam (such as the Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale). A severe discrepancy is no longer required by state; states may opt to use aforementioned exams or alternative based on Response to Intervention (RTI).

Identification of SLD must be cognizant of the exclusion clause. No other disability must exist for a person to be labeled SLD. Learning struggles of the individual must not result from any environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantages. Additionally, limited English proficiency must be considered and cannot be the cause of the learning struggles. The extent to which students have been provided appropriate learning experiences must also be considered and states must permit the use of child’s response to researched based interventions to factor into identification. The discrepancy must be one that cannot be solved in the general education classroom without additional special education (SPED) services.

Characteristics
Characteristics of an SLD person include:
 * Academic difficulties
 * Low achievement in reading. Reading is foundational and necessary for progress in other academic areas. 80% of students with LD have difficulty with reading
 * Students are often lacking skills in decoding rather than in comprehension
 * Lacking skills in written expression
 * Low achievement in mathematics. This can be an issue of difficulty learning math facts to facilitate quick response, difficulty learning strategies to complete math calculations, difficulty comprehending word problems, or difficulty learning strategies for completing word problems.
 * Inattention/distractibility
 * Information-processing deficits
 * Social-skills deficits
 * Poor motivation

SLD is a heterogeneous category of disability and therefore characteristics of an SLD individual can vary greatly.

Principles of instruction of students with SLD
There are four principles of effective instruction, especially students with SLD.

Big Ideas
Focusing on key ideas that deliver the greatest benefit in acquisition of knowledge can be really beneficial to students with SLD.

Example
Focus on precise and systematic instruction and intense intervention for reading in the basic skills required for reading.

Phonemic Awareness Phonemic awareness is the understanding that words are made of individual sounds (phonemes) and that these sounds can be added, deleted, manipulated, or changed to make new words. Explicitly teaching onset-rime, segmenting, blending, and phonemic manipulation can be beneficial to students with SLD.

The Alphabetic Principle (Phonics)  Phonics is the understanding of the correspondence between letters or groups of letters and their pronunciations. Students with SLD should be explicitly taught analytic phonics (language parts), synthetic phonics (sounding it out), vowel patterns, and syllabication.

Automaticity and Fluency  Good readers develop automaticity and fluency in reading. Repeated reading can help develop this skill. Students with SLD should have someone model fluent reading for them so they can have additional experience with reading and fluency. Readers should be supported practicing phrase boundaries, rapid word recognition, and choral reading. Opportunities to practice with meaningful text should be offered to improve reading in students with SLD.

Mediated Scaffolding
In mediated scaffolding, individualized supports for learning are gradually removed as learning progresses. Information and skills taught should build on foundational elements. This helps students access information they already know and allows them to build on that information facilitating the identifying of relationships between concepts. Supports should be used only as needed by the student allowing the student to control level of difficulty. The withdrawal of support when appropriate allows for students to take ownership of learned material. Instruction should be provided in different modalities allowing opportunities for success.

Judicious Review
Judicious review consists of short, sustained practice over time. Retention has been shown to increase when practice is divided into shorter practice opportunities. Review should be varied to provide wider understanding of content and of application of information. This also helps prevent boredom. Practice should be sufficient to encourage automaticity. Practice should also be cumulative over time and integrated into increased complexity.

Conspicuous Strategies
Explicit instruction on strategies for learning help leaves no aspect of the process up to the student’s intuition. Teachers should make explicit the implicit strategies that good readers use.

Examples

 * Mnemonic devices such as “Magic ‘e’” or “Bossy ‘r’” that help students understand vowel sounds
 * Alphabetic blending tasks where the student says the sounds when the teacher points to the letters
 * Strategies that increase the volume of reading in order to improve fluency

Study guides
According to a meta-analysis study advanced organizers have a significant effect on the success of SLD. Organizers can be used to help provide structure and link relationships of information. They can also help direct students to look over material prior to instruction and facilitate the focus on specific information. Organizers provide students with prior information about tasks and gives students the objectives of instruction upfront.

Strategy and sequencing
Explicitly teaching strategy alongside content Teacher breaks down the task for the student to facilitate understanding Gradual reduction of prompts or cues allows students to take ownership The difficulty level to the task should be matched with the student. Elements of the task or information should be provided step by step so that the student may follow along. Distributed practice Retention increased when practice divided into shorter practice opportunities. Judicious review has greater effects on retention Review is distributed over time Review is varied to provide wider understanding and application of information, prevent boredom Practice sufficient to encourage automaticity Practice is cumulative over time and integrated into increased complexity

Scaffolding
Information/skills should build on foundational elements. Helps students access information they already know and allows them to build on that information and identify relationships between concepts. Should be used only as needed by the student. Allows student to control level of difficulty. Withdrawal of support when appropriate allows for students to take ownership of learned material.

Other considerations
Students with SLD struggle with social-relationships and motivation. For example:
 * Recognizing emotions in self and others
 * Regulating and managing strong emotions
 * Recognizing strengths and areas of need
 * Setting goals and responsible decision making

Social-Emotional Learning can be explicitly taught. Some possible interventions:
 * Reflective journaling, especially when paired with classroom texts.
 * Class openers that include goal setting, opportunities for students to connect with one another and check in with their emotions
 * Increasing predictability in the classroom with routine
 * Class closing activities that allow for smooth transitions and reflection
 * Guidelines for planning and carrying out projects and reports

In addition to school counselors and school psychologist, the following people can provide behavioral support to students with SDL.

Peers
Setting up tutoring that allows for collaboration and models of appropriate behavior

Families
Helping the family set-up a homework center and schedule that allows the student to prepare for class.

Teachers
Implement accommodations and modifications that ensures student is able to be successful. Explicitly teach skills that will allow the student to set goals and action plans, and to develop organizational skills.