User:Tamaz.young/School segregation in the United States

Planned Work

 * 1) The article provides a great basic understanding of school segregation in the United States supported with many facts, which include laws, court rulings, and scholarly studies. However, I believe I can develop more depth of that understanding within the article by adding more content about legal segregation in today’s society and the effect of school segregation in race relations external to academia. As a High-importance subject for many WikiProjects involving education, civil rights and United States History, this article is crucially relevant to understanding the history of race relations in this country where racism and discrimination are still huge barriers in the wake and rise of movements that demand racial equality.
 * 2) In order to raise the rating of “School segregation in the United States”, a higher presence of pictures in the latter half is needed, and the organization can be changed slightly to present a better flow of material. Additionally, many minor edits can be made regarding grammar to present a more encyclopedic prose and increase the quality of the writing style while also adding more external links, citations, and references.
 * 3) I will be adding more information about segregation that exists today within desegregated institutions, specifically how standardized testing and AP classes leads to less exposure to minorities from whites. Also, I will be providing more context on the concept of white flight and private school education.
 * 4) I want to add a subtopic in the topic of Sources of contemporary segregation to provide theoretical concepts that relate to school segregation. Specifically, I would like to draw the parallel between Derrick Bell’s critical race theory and combatting segregation in schools.

Annotated Bibliography
Raffel, Jeffrey A. 1998. Historical Dictionary of School Segregation and Desegregation : the American Experience / Jeffrey A. Raffel, 176-177, 231-234. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press.

This is a dictionary which is relevant for the lead section of the article to establish a definition of the topic.

Reardon, Sean F, and Ann Owens. 2014. “60 Years After ‘Brown’: Trends and Consequences of School Segregation.” Annual Review of Sociology 40: 199–218. 

This journal entry analyzes evidence regarding trends and consequences of both racial and economic school segregation since Brown v. Board of Education. This is relevant to the topic of Historical segregation.

Little, Becky. 2020. “What Is ‘Redlining’?: How a New Deal Housing Program Enforced Segregation.” A&E Television Networks, October 20, 2020. 

This is a news article that details the relationship between the Federal Housing Act and and segregation. This is relevant to the topic of Historical segregation.

Card, David, and Jesse Rothstein. 2007. “Racial Segregation and the Black–white Test Score Gap.” Journal of Public Economics 91, no. 11: 2177–2178. 

This is a scholarly journal that studies the relationship between school segregation and the academic achievement gap. . This is relevant to the topic of More recent segregation.

Rosiek, Jerry. 2019. “School Segregation: A Realist’s View.” Phi Delta Kappan 100, no. 5 : 8–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/0031721719827536

This is a journal entry that focuses on segregation and racism today. This is relevant to expanding the topic of More recent segregation.

Tatum, Beverly Daniel. 1997. “Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together in THE Cafeteria?” and Other Conversations about the Development of Racial Identity. New York, NY: Basic Books.

This is a book that contributes information on how desegregated places can still function as segregated in modern times. This is relevant to expanding the topic of More recent segregation.

Böhlmark, Anders, Helena Holmlund, and Mikael Lindahl. 2016. “Parental Choice, Neighbourhood Segregation or Cream Skimming? An Analysis of School Segregation after a Generalized Choice Reform.” Journal of Population Economics 29, no. 4: 1155–1190.  This paper studies the evolution of school segregation in Sweden in the aftermath of the 1992 universal voucher reform, which spurred the establishment of new independent schools and introduced parental choice. This is relevant to my topic because the information regarding school choice and new schools is directly related to what happens in United States.

Coates, Ta-Nahesi. 2014. “The Case for Reparations.” The Atlantic, June. This is a magazine articles that focuses on the reparations for blacks in the United States. This is relevant to the subtopic of school choice and its financial limits.

Levesque, Roger J.R. 2017. The Science and Law of School Segregation and Diversity. New York: Oxford University Press, 2017. Oxford Scholarship Online. 

This book shows how the legal system’s effectiveness in addressing school segregation has reversed after the civil rights era.

Coates, Ta-Nehisi. 2015. Between the World and Me. New York, NY: Spiegel & Grau. This is a book about navigating through life as a black individual despite such pervasive and constant racism. This is relevant to address how desegregation avoided racism, the real root of the problem.

Noah, Trevor. 2016. Born A Crime: Stories from a South African Childhood. New York: Spiegel & Grau, Chs. 4 & 5. pp.51-76.

This book is an autobiographical comedy book about Trevor Noah. His story of segregation shows how the racial academic achievement gap begins and persists.

Billings, Stephen B, David J Deming, and Jonah Rockoff. 2014. “SCHOOL SEGREGATION, EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT, AND CRIME: EVIDENCE FROM THE END OF BUSING IN CHARLOTTE-MECKLENBURG.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 129, no. 1: 435–476. 

This study analyzes how the end of race-based busing widened racial inequality, despite efforts by the district to mitigate the effect of segregation through compensatory resource allocation. This is relevant to the topic of Implications of segregation because these outcomes show desegregation failed to accomplish solving racial issues.

Goldsmith, Pat Rubio. 2011. “Coleman Revisited: School Segregation, Peers, and Frog Ponds.” American Educational Research Journal 48, no. 3: 508–535. 

This journal demonstrates how students from minority-concentrated schools attain less education in the long run than students from White-concentrated schools regardless of if the student is of the minority or white. This is relevant to economics not being the most important factor in determining levels of school segregation.

Social well-being
The research that has been conducted on the effects of school segregation can be divided into studies that observe the social well-being and economic status outcomes of segregated schooling; these outcomes can be either academic or non-academic in nature.

The mixed findings of research on the effects of integration on Black students has resulted in ambiguous conclusions as to the influence of desegregation plans. Generally, integration has a small but beneficial impact on short-term outcomes for Black students (i.e. education achievement), and a clearly beneficial impact on longer-term outcomes, such as school attainment (i.e. level of education attained) and earnings. Integrated education is positively related to short-term outcomes such as K–12 school performance, cross-racial friendships, acceptance of cultural differences, and declines in racial fears and prejudice.

Short-term and long-term benefits of integration are found for minority and white students alike. Students who attend integrated schools are more likely to live in diverse neighborhoods as adults than those students who attended more segregated schools. Integrated schools also reduce the maintenance of stereotypes and prevent the formation of prejudices in both majority and minority students.

Economics and employment
In the long run, integration is associated with higher educational and occupational attainment across all ethnic groups, better intergroup relations, greater likelihood of living and working in an integrated environment, lower likelihood of involvement with the criminal justice system, espousal of democratic values, and greater civic engagement. On the other hand, a 2014 study highlights that as segregated schooling increases, the socioeconomic inequalities based on race increases. Billings, Deming, and Rockoff demonstrate how a certain school district focused on the allocation of funds redistributed to schools with a high volume of minority students. Majority-minority schools presents areas with high percentages of property that correspond to fewer resources and lower academic capability.

A 1994 study found support for the theory that interracial contact in elementary or secondary school positively affects long-term outcomes in a way that can overcome perpetual segregation against Black communities. The study reviewed previous research and determined that, as compared to segregated Black people, desegregated Black people are more likely to set higher occupational aspirations, attend desegregated colleges, have desegregated social and professional networks as adults, gain desegregated employment, and work in white-collar and professional jobs in the private sector. In schools with a relatively high average income per students, students are more likely to perform better because they feel safer.

Urban high schools reported significantly greater drop-out rates than their suburban counterparts. Nationwide, high school drop-out rates are centered in a few hundred public schools that are overwhelmingly impoverished, urban, and non-white. The 2000 Census noted that roughly 50% of high school dropouts are employed and earning 35% less than the average national income while college graduates make 131% of the mean national income with 85% employment.