User:TanishaNair/sandbox

Rough Draft of Lima Bean Edit/response to peer review:
Lima Bean Cultivation/Crop facts:

Cultivation:

Lima beans are found in Meso- and South America. Two gene pools of cultivated Lima beans point to independent domestication events. The Mesoamerican lima bean is distributed in neotropical lowlands while the other is found in the western Andes. The main rainy season lasts from June to August and most of the above-ground parts die during dry season. Germination or budding occurs in June or July. The first inflorescence is in October or November. The production of flowers and fruits usually ends between February and April.

Crop:

In the U.S, it is a warm season crop, grown mainly in Delaware and mid-Atlantic region for procession and in Midwest and California for dry beans. Baby lima beans are planted in early June and harvested about 10-12 weeks later. In western New York State, baby lima bean production increased exponentially from 2011 to 2015.

Pathogen/Disease:

a.      Phytophthora phaseoli, is one example of a pathogen of the lima bean. It is an oomycete plant pathogen that causes downy mildew of lima bean during cool and humid weather conditions. To combat this pathogen, developing lima bean cultivars with resistance is a relatively cost-efficient method that is also environmentally safe as compared to using pesticides.

b.      Didymella is a foliar disease found in baby lima beans first reported in New York State. Symptoms include small necrotic tan spots with red to reddish brown irregular margins that come together to eventually cover the entire leaf. Lesions occur after around 3-4 weeks of planting and increase till there is considerable defoliation. Lesions are usually observed on the stems. Two pynidial fungi were found on leaves included Didymella sp. And Boeremia exigua var. exigua which is pathogenic on baby lima bean and plays a role in the foliar disease complex. Other fungal diseases on lima beans with similar symptoms are B. exigua var. exigua, pod blight caused by Diaporthe phaseolorum, and leaf spots caused by Phyllosticta sp. and Phoma subcircinata.

Predators/Hosts (herbivores)

The two-spotted spider mites or Tetranychus urticae lay eggs on lima bean leaves. It prefers lima bean plants as host food source over other plants such as tomato or cabbage plants.

Spider mites pose the greatest threat to the lima bean plants as compared to other species such as the Common cutworm (Sodoptera litura) that are also known to feed on lima bean plants. They are host plants for their larvae.

Nutrition/Cooking/Anti-nutrition:

The most abundant mineral in the raw lima bean is potassium, followed by calcium, phosphorous, magnesium, sodium, and iron. When lima beans germinate, there is increased calcium and phosphorous. Additionally, it is a good source of Vitamin B-6.

They have on average two-fold more protein when comparing cereals that demonstrate a more balanced profile of essential amino acids. The dry seeds can be prepared in multiple ways: they can be coiled, fried, baked, ground into powder, and used in soups. It is a cheaper alternative to expensive soy or groundnut meal. It is also a good source of proteins, carbohydrates, crude fiber and minerals. The lima bean can contain anti-nutrients like phytic acids, saponin, oxalate, tannin, and trypsin inhibitors. These inhibit absorption of nutrients in animals and can cause damage to some organs. Roasting, pressure cooking, boiling, soaking, and germination reduce the antinutrients significantly.

Defenses

Lima Beans use extrafloral nectar (EFN) secretion when exposed to volatiles from other plants infested by herbivore species. Producing EFN can be an indirect defense since it supplies enemies of herbivores with an alternative food source. The predator of lima bean, spider mites, also have their own predators, the carnivorous mite Phytoseiulus persimilis. These predatory mites use EFN as an alternative food source and thus the production of this by the lima bean can attract P. persimilis and thus deter their herbivore hosts.

The main induced defense of the lima bean is the Jasmonic acid pathway. Jasmonic acid induces production of extrafloral nectar flow or induces it when herbivory occurs such as when attacked by spider mites.

One direct chemical defense involves cyanogenesis which is the release of hydrogen cyanide when the cell senses damage. Cyanide acts as a repellent on leaves of the lima bean.

Evolution and Domestication:

The lima bean was omesticated two times. Once in Andean region and another time in Mesoamerica. Lima bean is a domesticated species of economic and cultural importance worldwide, especially in Mexico. The species has two varieties. The wild variety is silvester and the domesticated one is lunatus.

One herbivore of lima bean is Spodoptera littoralis. An attack by this herbivore induces Hydrogen peroxide in the leaves. This may be also advantageous to defend against pathogens such as bacteria, fungi, or viruses, as they can easily invade herbivore-infected leaves.

Some other predators and defenses:

Other predatory insects include ants, wasps, flies and beetles.

One herbivore of lima bean is Spodoptera littoralis. An attack by this herbivore induces Hydrogen peroxide in the leaves. This may be also advantageous to defend against pathogens such as bacteria, fungi, or viruses, as they can easily invade herbivore-infected leaves.

 Bibliography 

1.Cultivation: growing season, where its grown

Heil, M. 2004. Induction of two indirect defenses benefits Lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus, Fabaceae) in nature. Journal of Ecology, 92: 527–536.

2. Pathogens/Disease: Phytophthora phaseoli

Kunjeti, S. G., N. M. Donofrio, A. G. Marsh, B. C. Meyers, & T. A. Evans. 2010. Phytophthora phaseoli; destroyer of lima bean production. Phytopathology, 100(6): 1.

3 Pathogen/Disease: Didymella

Gorny, A. M., J. R. Kikkert, R. G, Shivas, & S. J. Pethybridge. 2016. First report of Didymella americana on baby lima bean ( Phaseolus lunatus ). Canadian Journal Of Plant Pathology, 38(3): 389-394.

4. Predators/Hosts (herbivores):

Choh, Y., R. Ozawa, & J. Takabayashi. 2013. Do plants use airborne cues to recognize herbivores on their neighbours? Experimental & Applied Acarology, 59(3): 263-73.

5. Predator/Host

Choh, Y., & J. Takabayashi. 2007. Predator avoidance in phytophagous mites: Response to present danger depends on alternative host quality. Oecologia, 151(2): 262-7.

6. Nutrition/Cooking/Anti-Nutrition

Jayalaxmi, B., D. Vijayalakshmi, R. Usha, M. L. Revanna, R. Chandru, & P. H. Ramanjini Gowda. 2016. Effect of different processing methods on proximate, mineral and antinutrient content of lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus) seeds. Legume Research: An International Journal, 39(4): 543-549.

7. Nutrition/Cooking/Vitamin B6

Ekanayake Kanayake, A, & P. E. Nelson. 1990. Effect of Thermal Processing on Lima Bean Vitamin B-6 Availability. Journal Of Food Science, 55(1): 154-157.

8. Defenses (Extra floral nectaries/volatiles)/Toxins

Heil, M. and Kost, C. 2005. Increased availability of extrafloral nectar reduces herbivory in Lima bean plants (Phaseolus lunatus, Fabaceae). Basic and Applied Ecology 6(3): 237-248.

9. Defenses:

Ballhorn, D. J., S. Kautz, M. Heil, & A. D. Hegeman. 2009. Cyanogenesis of Wild Lima Bean (Phaseolus lunatus L.) Is an Efficient Direct Defence in Nature. Plos ONE, 4(5): 1-7.

10. Evolution and Domestication

Serrano-Serrano, M. L., R. H. Andueza-Noh, J. Martinez-Castillo, D. G. Debouck, & M. I. S. Chacín. 2012. Evolution and Domestication of Lima Bean in Mexico: Evidence from Ribosomal DNA. Crop Science, 52(4): 1698-1712.

11. Predator/Host

Maffei, M. E., A. Mithöfer, G. Arimura, H. Uchtenhagen, S. Bossi, C. M. Bertea, L. S. Cucuzza, M. Novero, V. Volpe, S. Quadro, W. Boland. 2006. Effects of Feeding Spodoptera littoralis on Lima Bean Leaves. III. Membrane Depolarization and Involvement of Hydrogen Peroxide. Plant Physiology,140 (3): 1022-1035.

1.Cultivation: growing season, where its grown

Heil, M. 2004. Induction of two indirect defenses benefits Lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus, Fabaceae) in nature. Journal of Ecology, 92: 527–536.

2. Pathogens/Disease: Phytophthora phaseoli

Kunjeti, S. G., N. M. Donofrio, A. G. Marsh, B. C. Meyers, & T. A. Evans. 2010. Phytophthora phaseoli; destroyer of lima bean production. Phytopathology, 100(6): 1.

3 Pathogen/Disease: Didymella

Gorny, A. M., J. R. Kikkert, R. G, Shivas, & S. J. Pethybridge. 2016. First report of Didymella americana on baby lima bean ( Phaseolus lunatus ). Canadian Journal Of Plant Pathology, 38(3): 389-394.

4. Predators/Hosts (herbivores):

Choh, Y., R. Ozawa, & J. Takabayashi. 2013. Do plants use airborne cues to recognize herbivores on their neighbours? Experimental & Applied Acarology, 59(3): 263-73.

5. Predator/Host

Choh, Y., & J. Takabayashi. 2007. Predator avoidance in phytophagous mites: Response to present danger depends on alternative host quality. Oecologia, 151(2): 262-7.

6. Nutrition/Cooking/Anti-Nutrition

Jayalaxmi, B., D. Vijayalakshmi, R. Usha, M. L. Revanna, R. Chandru, & P. H. Ramanjini Gowda. 2016. Effect of different processing methods on proximate, mineral and antinutrient content of lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus) seeds. Legume Research: An International Journal, 39(4): 543-549.

7. Nutrition/Cooking/Vitamin B6

Ekanayake Kanayake, A, & P. E. Nelson. 1990. Effect of Thermal Processing on Lima Bean Vitamin B-6 Availability. Journal Of Food Science, 55(1): 154-157.

8. Defenses (Extra floral nectaries/volatiles)/Toxins

Heil, M. and Kost, C. 2005. Increased availability of extrafloral nectar reduces herbivory in Lima bean plants (Phaseolus lunatus, Fabaceae). Basic and Applied Ecology 6(3): 237-248.

9. Defenses:

Ballhorn, D. J., S. Kautz, M. Heil, & A. D. Hegeman. 2009. Cyanogenesis of Wild Lima Bean (Phaseolus lunatus L.) Is an Efficient Direct Defence in Nature. Plos ONE, 4(5): 1-7.

10. Evolution and Domestication

Serrano-Serrano, M. L., R. H. Andueza-Noh, J. Martinez-Castillo, D. G. Debouck, & M. I. S. Chacín. 2012. Evolution and Domestication of Lima Bean in Mexico: Evidence from Ribosomal DNA. Crop Science, 52(4): 1698-1712.

11. Predator/Host

Maffei, M. E., A. Mithöfer, G. Arimura, H. Uchtenhagen, S. Bossi, C. M. Bertea, L. S. Cucuzza, M. Novero, V. Volpe, S. Quadro, W. Boland. 2006. Effects of Feeding Spodoptera littoralis on Lima Bean Leaves. III. Membrane Depolarization and Involvement of Hydrogen Peroxide. Plant Physiology,140 (3): 1022-1035.

List of Cited References:


 * 1) Acer rubrum-distribution section:  phosphorous ability affecting the spread of Acer rubrum. Ability of mycorrhizal fungi increase growth and spread of Acer rubrum
 * 2) Allelopathy   --Example of plant allel.opathy. Specific plant mechanisms because there is very limited information. There was only information on history and application.
 * 3) Lima bean : Work on sections of pollination, nutrition, any diseases affecting it, mechanism of storage transport, any toxicity

Article chosen: Lima Bean: Some more topics to include on the Lima Bean include more information on nutrition (and some anti-nutrition compounds are also found in the bean), pathogens and disease commonly affecting the plant, information on selective fertilization. The predators/hosts of this plant can also be added including how it interacts with it (how extra floral nectaries are affected). More info on cultivation can also be added (as mentioned in talk page)- where its grown, growing seasons/what month it germinates, etc. Information on pollination might also be added.Article evaluation

Spermatophyte page.

-The article was neutral and not heavily biased towards one opinion.

-The article did a good job finding references from reliable sources. They were scientific journals and not just websites.

-I looked at the history and many of the changes made by other editors were misspellings and typos.

Being bold is important on Wiki.