User:Tayeb188/sandbox/Kingdom of Algiers

The Kingdom of Algeria (مملكة الجزائر) is a monarchy in North Africa with access to the Mediterranean Sea. The inhabitants as well as European diplomats have called this kingdom kingdom of Algeria since the end of the XVIIe century. This monarchy was born after a revolution and coup d'état initiated by Baba Ali Chaouch, who put an end to Ottoman tutelage for good. He also initiated political and economic reforms within the kingdom, reviving pirate attacks in the Mediterranean Sea and eliminating thousands of Turkish janissaries for their infidelity, thus weakening their role in the kingdom.

From the second half of the XVIIe century, the Algerian people began to question the Ottoman presence on their territory. This challenge resulted in numerous revolts and reforms aimed at eradicating the Caliph's presence in the country. These reforms led to the arrival in power of the agha(s) between 1659 and 1671, then finally of the deys, chosen by the diwan of Algiers and governing with a Pasha sent by the Ottoman Empire. Despite the inferior power of the Pasha compared to that of the deys, the latter took a dim view of the sending of the Pasha by the Caliph and undertook a reform of independence from the Ottoman Empire, which lasted several decades before finally being completed. The state of Algiers during this period became a vassal of the Ottoman Empire before becoming completely independent.

The Algerian population is very diverse, mainly composed of Moors (Arabs and Berbers), with a minority of Turks, Kouloughlis and renegades. However, the Moors prefer to live a peasant life away from politics. More than 90% of the population is peasant and lives from agriculture. Thus, power was concentrated in the city of Algiers, inhabited by Moors as well as various nationalities.

In the XVIIIe century, the economy of the kingdom underwent a major transformation. In the previous century, the economy was essentially based on the sale of European slaves and the taking of ransoms, which brought in a lot of money for the state. However, technological advances in European weaponry gradually reduced this practice, although it did not cease completely. As a result, the deys saw the state's income dwindle and turned to taxes and levies on peasants and European countries to gain access to the Mediterranean Sea.

At the beginning of the XIXe century, the kingdom went through difficult times due to several famines as well as natural disasters that killed many inhabitants. In addition, numerous expeditions sent by European countries to stop piracy greatly weakened the country, as did numerous revolts of janissaries  against the  deys.

In the 1820s, the Kingdom of Algeria began to claim the compensation that France had promised to pay following the French Revolution, which had taken place three decades earlier. However, despite these legitimate demands, France refused to pay the sums due. Worse still, it took a military and expeditious decision by sending an expedition to Algeria in 1830, leading to the destruction of the Kingdom of Algeria and the beginning of French rule over Algerian territory.

Name
The term kingdom of Algiers appeared in the mid-17th century, when European historiographers and diplomats sent to Algiers noted the independent status of the regency of Algiers in relation to the Ottoman Empire. They began to refer to it as the Kingdom of Algiers, because what constituted an independent kingdom was already present. The term can be found in various European books, maps, diplomatic letters and inscriptions throughout the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. The most popular are Laugier de Tassy's book entitled "L'histoire du royaume d'Alger" in 1724, Guillaume Delisle's map in 1707, as well as the geographer Rigobert Bonne's map in 1781 and the French geographer Pierre Duval's map of the kingdom of Algiers in 1677, as well as several other European maps. The letter from the Ottoman Sultan Mustafa III to his counterpart Baba Ali for his election by the Diwan of Algiers, designating the state of Algiers as a 'Kingdom', is also noteworthy. Other terms used by historiographers of the time are the 'Republic of Algiers', the 'State of Algiers' or the 'State of El-Djazair'.

History
Baba Ali Chaouche seized control of the Kingdom of Algeria, putting an end to the Janissaries rule. The Pasha attempted to resist him, but was ultimately expelled from the country and warned never to return under the penalty of execution. Baba Ali Chaouche sent a letter to the Ottoman Sultan, declaring Algiers as an independent state, with no intention of being an Ottoman vassal but rather an ally at best. The Sublime Porte was outraged and attempted to send another Pasha to Algiers, but the Algerians refused and sent him back to Constantinople. Baba Ali Chaouche also implemented significant political reforms, including the massacre of thousands of Janissaries, which weakened the Diwan al Khas (the Oujdak diwan) and decreased the power of the Odjak. He gained support from the Arab-Berber population and the Rais corporation

Administration
Under the beylik system, each province was divided into outan, or counties, which were governed by caïds under the authority of the bey. To maintain order and collect taxes from tributary regions, the administration relied on makhzen tribes. This system allowed the State of Algiers to expand its authority over the north of Algeria for three centuries. Despite this, society remained divided into tribes and was dominated by maraboutic brotherhoods and local djouads, or nobles. As a result, certain regions only loosely acknowledged the authority of Algiers, leading to numerous revolts, confederations, tribal fiefs, and sultanates that contested the regency's control.

Levy warriors
The levy militia, which consisted of Arab-Berber warriors, made up the vast majority of the Algerian army and numbered in the tens of thousands. These warriors were primarily recruited from loyal tribes and clans, usually those that were part of the Makhzen. In the Beylik of Oran alone, the militia numbered up to 50,000 troops. The soldiers were equipped with traditional local weapons, such as muskets (typically moukahlas) and swords (either Nimchas or Flyssas). Unlike the state, which did not provide weaponry, soldiers were responsible for obtaining their own weapons, and it was expected that they owned a musket, which was a common possession among peasants and tribesmen. Many of these soldiers had been trained since childhood and came from warrior tribes, making them relatively effective, particularly in swordsmanship.

Government
After the coup of Baba Ali Chaouch, the Ottoman Empire's remaining control over the Kingdom of Algiers vanished. Baba Ali refused to receive the Pasha sent by the Ottomans, completely cutting off their role in the region. From then on, the Pasha title was held by the Dey himself. The political organization of the Kingdom was complex, with the Diwan of Algiers holding the power to elect the Dey and retain control over the country. After the Day's election, he would choose the five ministers of the country, including Khaznadji(prime minister), Agha al-mahalla, Ouakil al-kharadj, Khodjet al-khil, and Bait al-maldji. Additionally, the beys governing the four beyliks of the Kingdom.

The external politics of the Kingdom were entirely independent and served the interests of Algeria alone. During this period, the Kingdom engaged in significant trade with European countries, and Algerians led many wars against European powers. However, the ongoing clash between the Rais and the Odjak of Algiers weakened the country, leading to its eventual downfall. Both organizations sought to control the Kingdom by corrupting or changing the Deys, especially the Odjak, which murdered many Deys and corrupted the country for its own interests.

The Dey of Algiers
After Baba Ali's coup, the newly elected dey held absolute power in the kingdom, with the right to appoint the five ministers of the kingdom, including khaznadji, l'agha al-mahalla,wakil al Kharadj,khodjet al khil,bait el maldji. The beys that ruled over the provinces of the kingdom were also appointed by the dey as well as the most important government posts. During this time, most of the deys were Algerians from the Kouloughlis lineage. Despite the immense power of the dey, he faced opposition from the powerful odjak, which served as the main unit of the armed forces of the kingdom and had significant political influence. They guarded the dey palace and had the ability to eliminate him if he did not meet their demands. To balance the power of the odjak, the deys often allied with the taifa of rais. Over time, the power of the dey continued to increase to the point where he would ignore the diwan and rule alone.By the time the influence of the odjak decreased.

Diwan of Algiers
The diwan was originally the assembly of the main Janissaries of the odjack militia in Algiers, one of the pillars of the Regency of Algiers along with the taifa of the rais. Over time, the diwan evolved from an internal organ of the odjack to an institution of the Regency. In the 18th century, the public diwan was a council composed of high officials, notables, and the principal officers of the Janissary militia, totaling around 700 members. The diwan elected the dey of Algiers at the beginning of their tenure. However, as the power of the dey grew stronger, the influence of the diwan decreased until it was no longer regularly convened by the early 19th century. The power revolved around the dey and the ministers he appointed, who formed a separate institution called the "diwan." This council exercised real power and marked the end of the intervention of the diwan in the succession of the deys.

Minister's of the Dey
The Dey of Algiers, in conjunction with the Diwan of Algiers, appointed a group of five ministers to govern Algiers. These ministers included :
 * the Khaznadji, who acted as a Prime Minister for the country and oversaw the treasury.
 * the Agha al-Mahalla, who served as the supreme chief of the army and minister of internal affairs, and was responsible for governing the Dar as-Soltan region of Algiers.
 * The Khodjet al-Khil was responsible for managing fiscal responsibilities, collecting taxes, and had the ceremonial role of "secretary of horses", and was assisted by a "Khaznadar".
 * The Wakil al-Kharaj served as the minister of the navy of Algiers and foreign affairs.
 * the Bait al-Maldji was responsible for managing the tribes of the Makhzen of Algiers. These ministers were chosen by the Dey of Algiers.

It was the Dey of Algiers who selected these ministers.

Bey
The Bey holds the position of governor over the three provinces of Algiers. The three provinces are each governed by a separate Bey, namely the Bey of Titteri, the Bey of Constantine, and the Bey of Mascara (later the Bey of Oran] after its reconquest). The Bey is appointed by the Dey of Algiers and possesses administrative power over the provinces under their jurisdiction. Along with other notable government officials, the Bey is responsible for collecting taxes to fund the treasury of Algiers. Despite being charged with collecting taxes for Algiers, the reign of the Bey is effectively independent from that of the Dey.

Architecture
During this period Algiers developed into a major town and witnessed regular architectural patronage, and as such most of the major monuments from this period are concentrated there. By contrast, the city of Tlemcen, the former major capital of the region, went into relative decline and saw far less architectural activity. Mosque architecture in Algiers during this period demonstrates the convergence of multiple influences as well as peculiarities that may be attributed to the innovations of local architects.

The residential palace of the ruler in Algiers, the Janina or Jenina ('Little Garden'), was situated at the center of a larger palatial complex known as the Dar al-Sultan in the lower part of the city. This complex served as the ruling palace until 1816, when the Dey moved to the qasba following a British bombardment of the city that year. The only example of architecture from the Dar al-Sultan complex that is still preserved today is the Dar 'Aziza Bint al-Bey, believed to have been built in the 16th century.

But then from the Dey Ali bin Ahmed, all the sultans leave the palace of the Janina for the citadel of Algiers as the main residence of the deys.

Society
The society of the kingdom was characterized by its diversity. While the majority of the population was composed of Moors (Arabs and Berbers), they generally preferred to live a rural peasant lifestyle and stay away from politics. As a result, it allowed minority groups to continue to rule the kingdom, such as the Kouloughlis and Turks who migrated to the kingdom as volunteers for the odjak. These groups held notable power over the country as they were part of the Diwan, responsible for the security of Algiers, including the Dey's palace and important economic locations. The Kouloughlis, in particular, held an increasing amount of power over time as many of the Dey's were Kouloughlis and played an intermediary role between the population and the government. Additionally, Jews played a crucial role in the history of the kingdom, particularly at the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century. They were primarily traders and eventually came to dominate the trade of the kingdom, particularly in the wheat trade with the Kingdom of France and Italian cities. Some Jewish families even created trade companies and received significant benefits as they were close to the Dey and paid taxes for their trades. Furthermore, some Jews were charged by the Dey to watch over the population and provide their opinion on the Dey, granting them a form of power within the kingdom.