User:Tayloj11/sandbox

Introduction

 * 1) Goal
 * 2) Introduce the topic so that it is easy to understand and entices readers to read on
 * 3) Contents
 * 4) Define organ printing
 * 5) Similar to standard 3D printing begins with a scan or 3D computer model that is fed into the printer (b)
 * 6) A scaffold is formed with a biocompatible plastic that is then seeded with human cells or proteins (b)
 * 7) The entire structure is then placed in an incubator to give the cells time to divide and multiply (b)
 * 8) Next step would be to implant the organ into a patient where, ideally, the implant would become fully integrated into the patient’s anatomy (b)
 * 9) Introduce applications
 * 10) Has potential in organ transplants (c), pharmaceutical research (d), and as training modules for physicians/surgeons (e)
 * 11) New Figures
 * 12) Image of a 3D printer capable of printing live cells (a)
 * 13) References Used
 * 14) Advanced Polymers for Three-Dimensional (3D) Organ Bioprinting Wang Xiaohong. Micromachines Published Dec 2019 (a)
 * 15) Shaer, M. (2015, May). Soon, Your Doctor Could Print a Human Organ on Demand. Smithsonian Magazine. (b)
 * 16) Salzman, S. (2019, September 23). 3D-Printed Hearts with 'Beating' Tissue Could Ease Organ Donor Shortage. Retrieved February 12, 2020, from https://www.nbcnews.com/mach/science/3d-printed-hearts-beating-tissue-could-ease-organ-donor-shortage-ncna1057591 (c).
 * 17) C. Lee Ventola. (October 2014). Medical Applications for 3D Printing: Current and Projected Uses. 39(10), 704-711. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4189697/ (d)
 * 18) Off the 3-D Printer, Practice Parts for the Surgeon - The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2015/01/27/science/off-the-3-d-printer-practice-parts-for-the-surgeon.html . Accessed February 19, 2020 (e)

Organ printing utilizes techniques similar to conventional 3D printing where a computer model is fed into a printer that lays down successive layers of plastics or wax until a 3D object is produced. In the case of organ printing, the material being used by the printer is a biocompatible plastic. The biocompatible plastic forms a scaffold that acts as the skeleton for the organ that is being printed. As the plastic is being laid down, it is also seeded with human cells from the patient the organ is being printed for. After printing, the organ is transferred to an incubation chamber to give the cells time to grow. After a sufficient amount of time, the organ is implanted into the patient.

The ultimate goal of organ printing is to create organs that can fully integrated into the human body as if they had been there all along. Successful organ printing has the potential to impact several industries. These include organ transplants, pharmaceutical research , and the training of physicians and surgeons.

History

 * 1) Goal
 * 2) To give an overview of the research that has been done in the field of organ printing thus far
 * 3) Contents
 * 4) Major Milestones
 * 5) 3D printers developed in 1983 (a)
 * 6) At first, the materials used were not very sturdy and 3D printing could not create enduring objects
 * 7) The development of nanocomposites in the beginning of the 1990s allowed for creation of more durable objects with 3D printing (a)
 * 8) Inspired those in the medical field to research possible materials for organ printing
 * 9) 1999: 3D printer creates an artificial scaffold of a human bladder at Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine (a)
 * 10) Human cells were then implanted into the scaffold and the researchers were able to grow functioning organs
 * 11) A decade later, the patient saw no complications from the bioprinted organ (b)
 * 12) 2002: a functioning, miniature kidney was printed (a)
 * 13) 2003: an inkjet printer modified by scientist Thomas Boland presented new possibilities for the field of bioprinting (b)
 * 14) 2004: development of new bioprinter that allowed for direct input of living cells without a prior scaffolding needing to be constructed (b)
 * 15) 2010: first blood vessel printed by Organovo (a)
 * 16) Recently, a rabbit-sized heart was printed with blood vessels and the ability to contract by a team in Israel (b)
 * 17) New Figures
 * 18) N/A
 * 19) References Used
 * 20) Harris, W. (2013, December 17). How 3-D Bioprinting Works. Retrieved March 4, 2020, from https://health.howstuffworks.com/medicine/modern-technology/3-d-bioprinting1.htm (a)
 * 21) Przychodniak, M. (2019, May 12). The History of Bioprinting. Retrieved March 4, 2020, from https://3dprintingcenter.net/2019/05/12/the-history-of-bioprinting/ (b)

The field of organ printing stemmed from research in the area of stereolithography, the basis for the practice of 3D printing that was invented in 1983. In this early era of 3D printing, it was not possible to create lasting objects because the materials that were being used were not very sturdy. Therefore, in the early days, 3D printing was simply used a way to model potential end products that would eventually be made from different materials under more traditional techniques. In the beginning of the 1990s, nanocomposites were developed that allowed 3D printed objects to be more durable, permitting 3D printed objects to be used for more than just models. It was at this time that those in the medical field began considering 3D printing as an avenue for generating artificial organs. By the late 1990s, medical researchers were searching for biomaterials that could be used in a 3D printer.

In 1999, the first artificial organ was printed at the Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine. The scientists at Wake Forest printed an artificial scaffold for a human bladder and then seeded the scaffold with cells from their patient. Using this method, they were able to grow a functioning organ and ten years after implantation the patient had no serious complications.

After the bladder at Wake Forest, strides were taken towards printing other organs. In 2002, miniature, fully functional kidney was printed. In 2003, Thomas Boland modified a typical inkjet printer in a way that allowed him to perform extensive research into bioprinting and suitable biomaterials. Thomas Boland's printer became the ancestor for the modern bioprinters.

In 2004, the field of bioprinting was drastically changed by yet another new bioprinter. Dr. Forgacs (maybe try to find a first name or more info about him/her) created a printer that was able to use live human cells without having to build an artificial scaffold first. In 2009, Organovo used Dr. Forgacs' technology to create the first commercially available bioprinter. Soon after, Organovo's bioprinter was used to develop a biodegradable blood vessel, the first of its kind, without a cell scaffold.

Over the last ten years, further research has been put forth into producing other organs, such as the liver and heart valves, and tissues, such as a blood-borne network, via 3D printing. Within the last few years (look for a specific date), scientists in Israel made a major breakthrough when they were able to print a rabbit-sized heart with a network of blood vessels that were capable of contracting like natural blood vessels. The printed heart had the correct anatomical structure and function compared to real hearts. This breakthrough represented the first real possibility of printing fully functioning human organs. In fact, scientists at the Warsaw Foundation for Research and Development of Science in Poland have been working on creating a fully artificial pancreas using bioprinting technology. As of today, these scientists have been able to develop a functioning prototype. This is a growing field and much research is still being conducted.

Applications

 * 1) Goal
 * 2) Name instances in which organ printing will/can be used.
 * 3) Contents
 * 4) (Jess) Printed organs present a viable option for those who are waiting for donor organs
 * 5) Current method of treatment for these patients involves either transplanting from a living donor (liver, kidney) or from a recently deceased donor (lungs, heart) (a)
 * 6) Detail statistics on average wait times for organ transplations (e)
 * 7) marked increase from the 1990s when a patient had to wait only 5 weeks for a new heart (a)
 * 8) over 100,000 people on the donor list waiting for organs in the US (f)
 * 9) In the US 20 people die every day waiting for an organ (f)
 * 10) Discuss how donors are matched to recipients (g)
 * 11) (Lisa) Printed organs can be used as practice parts for surgeons in training (c)
 * 12) Model to help design and discuss treatment options
 * 13) Can improve surgical techniques and ‘patient-specific’ options
 * 14) (Caroline) Pharmaceutical Research (d)
 * 15) Concerning drug delivery, discovery, and dosage
 * 16) (Jessie) Organ on chips can be used to test organs responses to drugs and provide models for diseases (b)
 * 17) New Figures
 * 18) Image showing different methods of 3D printing (b)
 * 19) Image of an organ-on-chip
 * 20) References Used
 * 21) Salzman, S. (2019, September 23). 3D-Printed Hearts with 'Beating' Tissue Could Ease Organ Donor Shortage. Retrieved February 12, 2020, from https://www.nbcnews.com/mach/science/3d-printed-hearts-beating-tissue-could-ease-organ-donor-shortage-ncna1057591 (a)
 * 22) Zhang, B., Gao, L., Ma, L., Luo, Y., Yang, H., & Cui, Z. (2019). 3D Bioprinting: A Novel Avenue for Manufacturing Tissues and Organs. Engineering, 5(4), 777–794. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eng.2019.03.009 (b)
 * 23) Off the 3-D Printer, Practice Parts for the Surgeon - The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2015/01/27/science/off-the-3-d-printer-practice-parts-for-the-surgeon.html . Accessed February 19, 2020. (c)
 * 24) C. Lee Ventola. (October 2014). Medical Applications for 3D Printing: Current and Projected Uses. 39(10), 704-711. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4189697/ (d)
 * 25) https://www.donors1.org/patients/resources-for-transplant-patients/the-waiting-list/ (e)
 * 26) https://www.organdonor.gov/statistics-stories/statistics.html (f)
 * 27) https://www.organdonor.gov/about/process/matching.html (g)

Currently, the sole method for treatment for those in organ failure is to await a transplant from a living or recently deceased donor. In the United States alone, there are over 100,000 patients on the organ transplant list waiting for donor organs to become available. Patients on the donor list can wait days, weeks, months, or even years for a suitable organ to become available. The average wait time for some common organ transplants are as follows: four months for a heart or lung, eleven months for a liver, two years for a pancreas, and five years for a kidney. This is a significant increase from the 1990's, when a patient could wait as little as five weeks for a heart. These extensive wait times are due to a shortage of organs as well as the requirement for finding an organ that is suitable for the recipient. An organ is deemed suitable for a patient based on blood type, comparable body size between donor and recipient, the severity of the patient's medical condition, the length of time the patient has been waiting for an organ, patient availability (i.e. ability to contact patient, if patient has an infection), the proximity of the patient to the donor, and the viability time of the donor organ. In the United States, 20 people die everyday waiting for organs. 3D organ printing has the potential to remove both these issues; if organs could be printed as soon as they are need, there would be no shortage. Additionally, seeding printed organs with a patient's own cells would eliminate the need to screen donor organs for compatibility.

* possibly add a link to wiki organ donation page

Organ printing technology can also be combined with microfluidic technology to develop organ-on-chips. These organs-on-chips have the potential to be used for disease models, aiding in drug discovery, and performing high-throughput assays. Organ-on-chips work by providing a 3D model that imitates the natural extracellular matrix, allowing them to display realistic responses to drugs. Thus far, research has been focused on developing liver-on-a-chip and heart-on-a-chip, but there exists the potential to develop an entire body-on-a-chip model.

* possibly add link to organ-on-a-chip wiki page

* maybe go into more details on what they are/how they are used