User:Tcrnbmi/Alchemy and Metallurgy

Metallurgy, alchemy and chemistry are inseparable disciplines when they are examined from historical point of view, especially through examples from classical and medieval literature, art and philosophy. The Metallurgy had its inauguration with the discovery and use of native metals by the ancient people and since prehistory to modern times it ascended into a long way of evolution. Today, the archaeometallurgy as a sub-discipline of archaeology is directed towards investigating the use and production of metals through history and by different cultures.

Context of Alchemy
The metals were always ascribed special mystic properties and when the alchemy emerged as discipline it was closely linked with the metallurgists and metal workers. Treatises on metal production were written by every alchemist and referral to these ancient texts is vital when attempting to uncover the abstract meanings of metals and ancient technology of production.

History of Alchemy
The ultimate origin of alchemy is certainly dubious issue but we can possibly trace the influences springing from the early ancient civilisations in Middle East. From Mesopotamia moving along westwards to Egypt and Greece and eastwards along the caravan routes to India and China the alchemy was brought to Europe by the Muslim power which consequently absorbed the main cultural centres. The Islamic scholars were great appreciators of the Classical Greek philosophy so they systematically transcribed classic Hellenistic texts and early Christian writings. The transmission of ideas into the Islam through its newly acquired colonies established the alchemical elite which proved to be great influence upon the later emerging European followers. The accumulated knowledge from the Islamic alchemists ( Jabir Ibn Hayyan, al-Kadi, Razi, Ibn-Sina) was transmitted into Western Europe via Spain and through the medium of Latin translations of Arabic texts.

Interests of Alchemy
The alchemy is seen as a complex philosophical system 'striving to bring the microcosm of the man into relation with the macrocosm of the universe'. Religion, mysticism and symbolism were means of transmission of the mysteries surrounding creation and life only because alchemy appeared in a world where the above were imminent part of the proto-scientific milieu. However, it could be distinguished that the alchemy had dual nature: abstract and symbolic nature of the alchemy (perception of it as a philosophical and spiritual doctrine) depicted in arts and literature; practical nature which was materialised in crafts, science and medicine. The latter nature of the alchemy is always identified with the Great Work or producing gold and silver through transmutation of base metals. The noble metals have specific aesthetic and technical qualities that elevated them above all other inorganic materials found in the nature. Acquiring and possession of these were drive for emergence and establishing of a discipline that germinated broader interests than metal transmutation or acquiring the ultimate transmuting agent Philosopher’s Stone and finally lead to establishing the chemistry as a science. Although, it cannot be assumed that the alchemy was all about transmuting noble metals, the chrysopoeia was definitely aspect that helped developing techniques and skills used in industrial metallurgy.

Mercury-Sulphur Theory (observations from ancient texts)
Gold and silver were often given special heavenly attributes and their properties were linked with the ones of the Sun and the Moon. Therefore they were juxtaposed as two contrasts through many symbolic depictions and perceptions such as masculine and feminine, active and passive, hot and dry against cold and wet, etc. In the Mercury-Sulphur Theory the same symbolism is used against sophic Mercury and sophic Sulphur and the process of interaction of the both, wet and dry, female and male, was believed to produce the ultimate element or agent of transmutation. This theory derived from the Aristotelian Theory of four elements (Fire, Air, Water and Earth). Paracelsus (c.1540 introduced salt as third element in the mercury-sulphur theory to which he therefore referred as Tria Prima. There are another occasions when he referred to the three principles as phlegma, fat and ash. Paracelsus was a represent of the generation of alchemists with radical ideas and therefore incurred the wrath of the intellectual elite by disputing Galen and Ibn-Sala. He was also credited with the first description of zinc as 'a bastard of copper, peculiar metal, but often adulterated by foreign metals'.

Alchemical description of transmutation process
‘In the language of the alchemists, the outcome of the process were pure ‘seeds’ of gold and silver that could be extracted from these noble metals which were in form of sophic mercury and sophic sulphur. These ‘seeds’ are combined through the medium of a liquid menstruum. The practical processes are known as the Great Work which leads to the Grand Magisterium or Philosopher’s Stone’. The actual ‘multiplication’ was never achieved and lead to appearance of charlatanism and scandals in the alchemical world which brought public refute and ostracising of the alchemy as being non-scientific doctrine. Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Canon Yeoman’s Tale is contemporary literary presentation of how the language of alchemy represented an’ alternative religious discourse and the passion drove the alchemist in borrowing money in order to sustain its addiction of recreating the experiments of transmutation. The canon in the Chaucer’s work is represented as one of the tricksters whose recipe do not work and bring miserable fate upon the ones that are taken by the swindling alchemists.’

Schism in the Alchemy
The developments in Renaissance lead towards liberation of the alchemy from the obsession of gold-making and shedding the image of mysticism and obscurity. Paracelsus was considered as revolutionary alchemist and later Libavius (1540-1616), Jan Batista Van Helmont (1577-1644) and Glauber (1604-1616) paved the way for Robert Boyle (The Sceptical Chymist) who in 1661 finally dismisses the idea of four principle elements and introduced the modern idea of the element. However, George Starkey (known under the pseudonym Eirenaeus Philalathes) who was Boyle’s contemporary could be considered as one of the last in the line of ‘great philosophical alchemists’ before the complete segregation of the alchemy as non-scientific, ‘occult’ and fraudulent.

Modern observations from critical (chemical and metallurgical) point of view
Democritus’ observation of the qualitative properties of mercury was that: ‘Mercury robs all metals of their appearances. Just as wax takes the colour which it has received, so mercury whitens all metals and attracts souls. It defines them and is diffused. Being properly disposed and having in itself the principle of all liquidity, when it has undergone decomposition, it changes colours everywhere.’ Later writers as Geber and Albertus Magnus referred to mercury as ‘spirit because it does not exhibit its properties until it is associated with metals. Subliming mercury upon metals purifies them’. Mercury-Sulphur Theory if perceived through the eyes of modern scientists could be seen as actual extraction of silver or gold from mercury. Initial gold was necessary in the process of transmutation, as suggested, and this leads to modern observations that actual practical experiment would have yielded gold in tiny amounts anyway but would had required excessive amount of mercury. However, if quantitative analysis were carried out, the amounts of gold entering the process remained same after the process and no multiplication occurred. In practice, purifying the gold from washed gold dust could be done by adding mercury (quicksilver) to the mix. The mercury dissolves the gold and the mixture known as amalgam sets at the bottom while the mixture of earthen dust while other impurities levitate on top. When dry, the impurities are set on fire and the mercury distils over and releases the gold, silver and other metals. Paracelsus’s work was largely non-quantitative and the major goal of the Paracelsian chemistry was the analysis and purification of minerals and other substances. On other hand, Alexander von Suchten (mid-sixteenth century) wrote treatises on the co-existence of alchemical theory and practice, qualitative and quantitative assaying and experiment and used his expertise in metallurgical assaying which contributed towards development of quantitative chemistry that focused on the weights of starting materials and final products. Although his interest was based on the Paracelsian iatrochemistry, non-metallic transmutation, after careful qualitative and quantitative tests he dismissed the idea.

Alchemy and metallurgy
Medieval metallurgy and alchemy had a relationship of symbioses and they complemented each other. The knowledge and skills learned from one were transmitted and implemented in the other. The early treatise of Theophilus (De diversis artibus written in early 12th century), the works of Libavius and finally Agricola’s De Re Metallica and Lazarus Ercker’s treatise on ores and assaying  illustrated the equipment and metallurgical techniques deployed by the craftsmen. Literary sources gave insight into the innovations and rising of the metallurgy as industry. Athough, the metallurgy was always seen as craft and the craftsmen were interested in practical exploitation of the mineral wealth, the intellectual elite of the alchemy or chymistry in the pursuit of ‘creation of gold’, borrowed and further developed techniques used un metallurgy and promoted them as specialised know-how in the metallurgical processes. Transmutation experiments lead to inventions (cupellation and fire assay, brass-production by sublimation, salt parting and acid parting of gold and silver, etc) which were further used on industrial scale of production completely detached from the chrysopoetic activities of the mystics.

Material evidence for alchemical activities
Evidence of chymical activities appeared sporadically on mining sites where assaying was carried out on ores. In a different context, few bone ash cupels for small-scale cupellation, dated from 16th century, were discovered in Legge’s Mount at Tower of London. The excavation also produced number of dishes containing metallic residues which was direct evidence of parting processes carried on the site. The most significant discovery on the subject was made in Oberstockstall, 50 km east from Vienna where the excavations carried out in 1980 to 1993-4 recovered archaeological assemblages and furnace structures dating from around 16th century. The finds comprised about 1000 items, including triangular crucibles of different sizes, scorifiers, bone-ash cupels, phials, distillation columns, muffles, alembics for distillation and sublimation, cucurbits, retors, adopters, receivers, aludels and other chemical apparatus of ceramic and glass. Also, there were remains of bone, minerals, charcoal and metallurgical debris. Knowing that the metallurgical assaying was interwoven in the alchemy and in the alchemical traditions it was not easy to establish the true nature of the experiments carried out on this site but nevertheless it appeared to be well equipped Renaissance laboratory. The objects and remnants of two furnaces were found sealed by a later brick floor at the sacristy of the church adjoining a manor house and further according to the historical record, the possible masters of laboratory were the ecclesiastics that successively lived at this manor house - Christoph von Trenbach, Urban von Tenbach, Victor August Fugger and Sigmund Friedrich Fugger all of them priests with important positions (von Osten 1998).