User:TheAlexRodriguez/sandbox

Adding to the first paragraph of the article that talks about Wilson's book:

Many scholars and activists consider Wilson's book, “The Truly Disadvantaged” the "bible" of scholarship on the neighborhood effect. President Obama was inspired by Wilson's book to sign a $840-billion stimulus bill to assist poor inner cities with money for schools, cops, homelessness. “The Truly Disadvantaged” has been a stepping stone for a great deal of research on the neighborhood effect, particularly on education, exploring the impacts of one's neighborhoods on an individual's outcome and performance in life.

The neighborhood effect on education in the United States
The neighborhood effect on education refers to how neighborhoods receive different educational resources due to the neighborhood's wealth which impacts students' academic achievements such as test scores, grade point averages, and professional connections. The neighborhood effect on education can impact the quality of teachers, school programs, clubs, and campus environment students might experience. Multiple studies confirm that a "neighborhood's poverty, a poor educational climate, the proportion of ethnic/migrant groups, and social disorganization" together all contribute to the lack of academic success among students in that area.

History
The neighborhood effect on education is rooted in how the public education system is funded in the United States -- specifically, the fact that school districts rely largely on local property taxes for the majority of their funding. The United States constitution grants the power of education to the States which allows the States to decide how to fund and allocate money to their education systems. Traditionally, States have allowed for local property taxes to fund most of the public education system within the school districts creating large disparities. Studies sampling all 50 States have observed that nearly half of the budget of the education system comes out of local property taxes which generates great inequalities for high poverty neighborhoods as communities that have lower property tax value, such as undervalued properties like torn-down houses, can provide much less funding and resources to local schools which hinders academic success.

Impact
A neighborhood's poverty contributes to the lack of resources students might receive, which include lack of adequate and trained teachers in schools and a lack of mentors who share the same ethnic/social background to voice the importance of education to individuals in their communities. Students in low-income schools have fewer interactive classroom materials, such as TVs, high-speed internet, functioning laptops, consistently present teachers, enrichment programs such as dance, and less tutoring programs that can assist these students with standardized testing. It is noted today that the highest-poverty districts receive about $2,000, or 16 percent, less per student than low-poverty/affluent districts. Schools and school districts in more affluent communities that get more money based on local property taxes receive more quality teachers due to providing higher wages, less crime presence rates within schools, and more enrichment college-ready programs that can greatly increase higher academic standardized testing scores and retention rates within schools. Students in high poverty communities are often exposed to other realities such as crime, gang violence, high teen pregnancy rates, and lack of adequate transportation which can all hinder their academic succession which then creates larger disparities between neighborhoods in standardized testing and graduation rates. The neighborhood effect on education creates a 12.5 difference in graduation rates amongst low-income and non-low-income students, in which only 77.6 percent of low-income students graduated in comparison to 90 percent of non-low-income students in a 2014 study. The difference of graduation rates amongst low and non low income communities can create large inequalities on the future of individuals as a high school diploma can boost an individual's financial salary income and lead to a longer and healthier life expectancy. The neighborhood effect on education has a greater impact on an immigrant's student academic success and their cultural assimilation. A study found that a neighborhood's wealth has a greater influence on those from immigrant families as immigrant students in low socioeconomic communities have lower grade point averages and academic retention due to their lack of resources and lack of cultural assimilation within society. Hispanic and Asian immigrant households are more prone to attend low-income schools with fewer resources which disproportionately impact their test scores as they might be in more need of tutoring and translation services which the schooling institution cannot provide.

A study done in New York City proved the correlation of neighborhood affluence on people's education, as students were moved from high-poverty areas into low-poverty areas under the Moving to Opportunity for Housing Demonstration (MTO) project. The MTO project found that students moved into more affluent areas had positive increases in their standardized tests, while those students who were placed in high-poverty neighborhoods lacked proper school counselors, up-to-date textbooks, enrichment programs, school safety, and consistently present teachers which hindered their academic success as told by standardized testing.

The difference of resources, standardized testing, and school performance between neighborhoods creates impactful stigmas associated with low-income students in high-poverty areas as these students are the blame for their academic deficiency which can lead to often stigmatization and harm. Some policies have been enacted to help reduce the magnitude of the neighborhood effect on education, such as the Obama's Neighborhood Revitalization Initiative which, because of congressional inaction, failed to give local schooling adequate resources to help support their students. Lack of government action and low-income schools can subjugated students to lower test scores which in doing so, can affect the students' sense of worth and emotions which can produce low self-esteem, lack of hope, and depression.

The neighborhood effect on education has the same general impact on students, such as lower test scores and academic retention, but some consequences differ from the elementary, middle, and high school grade levels. High school students who attend low-income/high poverty schools are prone to a lack of college-ready programs and are at a higher risk of not advancing to the next grade level. Middle school students in low-income schools struggle to adjust with a new schedule of classes but also with sporadic body changes. Low-income students who are in elementary schools face larger amounts of teasing and bullying due to the possible socioeconomic status of their family which can warrant less participation in the classrooms and less academic success measured by standardized testing.

Addition to "Challenges for SBFC in low-income communities"
The School-Based Family Counseling approach targets school violence, immigrant families' experiences , and trauma. It requires family members' participation. This can be a challenge for those students whose family members are not available to go to workshops and trainings either because they cannot take time out of work or because they do not support or relate to the principles of the SBFC approach.

Immigrant families
Students seeking counseling to navigate difficulties of the immigrant family experience often have family members who work long hours and cannot give time to the trainings of the SBFC method of counseling. Immigrant families rarely have the time, or the language literacy, to help their children navigate school institutions which can create a disconnect between school counseling programs and immigrant households. The processes of acculturation and assimilation are slow and delicate; their complications extend to a lack of understanding of the Western practice of multicultural progressive school counseling. People in immigrant households may have different traumas and experiences that make them feel lost, depressed, stuck with regard to life choices, and alienated from all formal institutions of mainstream society, including schools. School counseling is often stigmatized by immigrant families because school counselors often approach immigrant students with English-only career tests and one-size-fits-all resource guides. Immigrants students are often subject to ethnic stereotypes by school counselors; for example, Hispanics are considered physical laborers and not scholars and Asian immigrant students are held to higher academic standards and considered intelligent Common ethnic stereotypes assumed by school counselors undermine the intended impact of the SBFC approach.

School violence
School violence is often a response to a lack of present family members which can be correlated with an economy demanding extremely long work hours for low-income household survival. Low-income families that are constantly working can be less active participants in their children's schools and upbringing. Studies note that many low-income communities lack mentors who can stress the value of schooling, which in turn correlates to student disengagement and an increase in acting out and violent behavior. Lack of engagement among community members can translate to a lack of parent involvement in schooling institutions which can impede the counselor-teacher partnership the SBFC approach urges. Low-income communities' high numbers of population turnover rates, lack of strong well-funded institutions, and displacement of people from their neighborhoods not only increases school violence among students, but can also create a disconnection between households and local institutions. Students in low-income communities with high crime rates are more prone to commit violence in their local schooling institutions which can promote fear into many students yet students in general are prone to stay silent when approached by school administration to speak about this issue. Violence in schooling institutions is often normalized by parents due to constant violence in their communities which then disrupts possible connections between counselors and parents. The high rates of school violence within low-income urban schools can lead to traumatic stress which is often neglected by low-income/ethnic minority families while only further undermines the SBFC method of counseling.

Trauma/mental health
Low-income households often do not validate students' traumatic experiences and can show little interest in attending training with school counselors. Being low-income can produce various traumas that most families tend to ignore, creating a culture of mental health negligence and a lack of proper self care within these households. A 2008 survey shows that the mental health needs of the poor are often unmet due to the lack of insurance coverage. A 2015 study found that 48% of whites received mental health services compared to  31% of African Americans and Hispanics, and 22% of Asians. Mental health negligence can be attributed to low-income communities being often misdiagnosed and misunderstood with their trauma or mental healthcare overall. SBFC approaches can also fail to account for ethnic/cultural attitudes toward mental health. For example, Mexican American families were found to have a lower rate of mental health problems due to the strong cultural belief of natural healing in comparison to traditional psychiatric services.