User:TheDenverGoose/Wildlife forensic science/Booglgoogle1 Peer Review

Wildlife Forensic Science[edit]
Wildlife forensic science is forensic science applied to legal issues involving wildlife. They also deal with the conservation and identification of rare species and are a valuable tool for non-invasive studies to determine the relatedness of the animals in the area, allowing them to determine rare and endangered species that are candidates for genetic rescue using things such as the SSCP or Single-Strand Conformational Polymorphism gel electrophoresis technique, microscopy, DNA barcoding, Mitochondrial Microsatellite Analysis and some DNA and Isotope analysis can identify species and individual animals in most cases if they have already been captured. Unlike human identification, animal identification requires the determination of its family, genus, and species, and sex in order to individualize the animal, typically through the use of DNA-based analyses.

History[edit]
Wildlife Forensic Science stems from the various issues that are delt with when it comes to Wildlife Crime. Wildlife Crime includes actions such as wildlife trafficking, poaching, wildlife cruelty, and habitat destruction. Wildlife Crime can basically be anything that threatens the existence of a species, animal or plant. Wildlife Crime creates a variety of problems for wildlife. Including but not limited to ecological stability, economies, public heath, and criminal justice. Out of international crime, Wildlife Crime is only second to the drug trade, and may be making up to $20 billion dollars per year. The two main ways to prevent wildlife crime is various types of legislation which helps protect and identify species, and wildlife forensic science, which is used to view biological aspects of the crime. Various acts have come to light to try and assist on the legislative side of wildlife crime such as The Endangered Species Act and the Lacey Act.

The Endangered Species Act

The Endangered Species Act or ESA developed in the United States. United States President, Richard M. Nixon signed the Endangered Species Act on December 28th, of 1973. The overarching goal of the ESA was to conserve and protected both wildlife as well as protecting their habitats across the globe. This act came forth due to wildlife being threated in the United States, and also helped start various treaties and actions with countries across the globe in order to protect species. This included migratory bird treaties with Canada, Mexico, and Japan and the creation of a contention for Natural Protection and Wildlife Preservation. The Lacey Act

The Lacey act was developed in 1900, and has since gone through various expansions throughout the years to protect and enforce wildlife laws. The act initially stated with preventing hunters from killing game illegally, and then transferring them across states. Importing, exporting, transportation, and the sale and purchase of species are now all sections that are included in the more modern Lacy Act. In addition the Lacey act has also expanded to wood products, not just animals.

These acts have started to develop methods to combat wildlife crime, however, they are further advanced by wildlife forensic sciences.

Wildlife Trafficking[edit]
Wildlife trafficking includes the trading of live animals or parts of wildlife that are sold and came from the wild. Wildlife trade generates a large amount of revenue each year, equaling billions of dollars. Various animals are trafficked for the pet trade, such as birds, reptiles, and corals. Animal parts that are commonly traded include bushmeat, animal horns for medicinal and ornamental purposes, and products to make fashion products. Several species that threatened include charismatic megafauna such as the African Elephant. Wildlife Forensic Science comes into play throughout wildlife trafficking as scientists use DNA to try and determine information about the species that are being trafficked.

Poaching[edit]
Poaching is a complex and global problem. Part of what makes poaching such a complex issue it provides complications to conservation, additionally, poaching is also linked to poverty. However, thousands of species are faced with poaching. Poaching provides an extra threat for charismatic megafauna, such as elephants and rhinoceroses. Products from poaching can include ivory, animal skins, bones, bushmeat. These items may be sold as they are or turned into leathers, traditional medicines, ornaments, and more. In addition, poaching isn't just a wildlife problem, poaching also occurs for ornamental plants as well.

Animal Cruelty[edit]
After the 2020 production of Tiger King: Murder, Mayhem, and Madness, roadside zoos have come into the limelight. These zoos have brought to light possible flaws in legislation and the limited protection of endangered wildlife. However beyond the legislative implications of operations such as roadside zoos, various wildlife crime aspects lead to animal cruelty and animal abuse. These situations often lead to animals being killed, which lends itself to wildlife forensic sciences, to explore the aftermath of these events. In addition, investigations of animal cruelty can lead to new legislation to protect wildlife.

Habitat Destruction[edit]
Habitat destruction is an additional threat that faces wildlife. Habitat destruction includes habitat fragmentation, introduction of invasive species, and trye habitat destruction. However, in order to help combat habitat destruction genetic sequencing and classification of morphological structure play key roles in protecting an area. Wildlife forensic sciences have been used to sequence animals such as pangolins, and plants such as orchids, in order to identify the species living in areas that are being destroyed, and to help provide evidence and the support for protection of areas.

Types of Evidence[edit]
In order to understands wildlife crime, and in order to complete wildlife forensic science, evidence is needed. There are various parts of evidence that are used in order to understand the crime and species being affected. Evidence can take a variety of forms such as the entire organism, both living or dead, pieces of the animals (fur, feathers, bones, and organs), or even the products created from the organism. These products may include jewelries, processed meats, clothing, ornaments, and medicines.

Single-Strand Conformational Polymorphism Gel electrophoresis[edit]
A simple and sensitive technique used to identify any mutations and also used in the genotyping of animals. The technique uses the method based on the fact that single-stranded DNA has a defined conformation. Any altered conformation due to a single base change in the sequence can cause single-stranded DNA to migrate differently under nondenaturing electrophoresis conditions, so a wild-type and mutant DNA samples display different band patterns.

There are 4 steps to this method:


 * 1) polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of DNA sequence of interest
 * 2) denaturation of double-stranded PCR products
 * 3) cooling of the denatured DNA (single-stranded) to maximize self-annealing
 * 4) detection of mobility difference of the single-stranded DNAs by electrophoresis under non-denaturing conditions.

c[edit]
DNA nucleotide sequencing is a key method and follow it up by comparing sequenced DNA fragments with reference DNA sequences of different species. The similarity or sequence homology between the unknown and reference sequences facilitates to ascertain the species of origin. This technique is used to determine relatedness of a rare species and to also check for any signs of inbreeding depression in the target species to see if it is a candidate for genetic rescue. Isotope analysis is used in this same vein to determine the composition of the habitat that animal resides in.

Mitochondrial Microsatellite Analysis[edit]
Mitochondrial microsatellite analysis methods are often performed to individualize the remains of an animal and determine if a species is endangered, or if it was hunted out of season. Mitochondrial DNA reference profiles can be easily be obtained from public databases like the International Nucleotide Sequence Database (INSDC), the European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), and the Bardode of Life Data System (BOLD or BOLDSystems). Mitochondrial DNA is used due to its high copy number, and the presence of differences in mutation rates among closely related species. The cytochrome c oxidase unit 1 (CO1) region (also known as the DNA barcode region) mutates at a lower rate and is used for higher level taxonomic classifications whereas the control region and cytochrome b are used in distinguishing closer related taxa due to their mutation rate being higher.

DNA Barcoding[edit]
DNA barcoding is often used in Wildlife Forensic Science cases to identify an unknown species found at a crime scene. Blood, hair, bone, and other genetic materials are first collected at the scene, then DNA extraction is performed on the samples collected. After that, DNA quantification or PCR is performed to quantify the DNA, then DNA sequencing is performed to sequence the DNA. Lastly, the sequenced DNA is compared to a DNA database for a possible identification of the unknown species. This technique is often used in poaching cases, animal abuse cases, and killing of endangered animals.

Microscopy[edit]
This technique is when genetic microscopes are used to look down to a single cell it is used to look at recombination also look for mutations in genes it has been used to help identify many deleterious alleles in genes.

Laboratories and organizations[edit]
With the initiative of the Society for Wildlife Forensic Science (SWFS), the Scientific Working Group for Wildlife Forensic Sciences (SWGWILD) was formed in 2011. Also, the Wildlife Forensic and Conservation Genetics (WFCG) Cell was formed by merging the Wildlife Forensic and Conservation Genetics Laboratories for strengthening the enforcement of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 of India. Other organizations that help handle wildlife crimes are the World Wildlife Fund that educate about wildlife crime. Several organizations have ongoing projects to support the stop of wildlife crime, and to support wildlife sciences. One of these organizations is Interpol, that handles international crime. Interpol has various projects, such as Project Wisdom, Operation Thunderstorm, Operation Thunderbird, and Operation Worthy, and Operation Paws. These various operations work under the wildlife crime working group.

* Maybe include CITES, IUCN, TRAFFIC, and UNODC (not sure yet)*

Scope[edit]
While animals and plants are the victims in the crimes of illegal wildlife trade and animal abuse, society is also affected when those crimes are used to fund illegal drugs, weapons and terrorism. Links between human trafficking, public corruption and illegal fishing have also been reported. The continued development and integration of wildlife forensic science as a field will be critical for successful management of the many significant social and conservation issues related to the illegal wildlife trade and wildlife law enforcement.

See also[edit]

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 * This page was last edited on 15 October 2023, at 22:53.