User:Thewiltog/Richard of York

Richard, Duke of York was a member of the English royal family, who served in senior positions in France at the end of the Hundred Years War, and in England during Henry VI's madness. His conflict with Henry VI was a leading factor in the political upheaval of mid-fifteenth-century england, and a major cause of the Wars of the Roses. Although he never became king, he was the father of Edward IV and Richard III.

Descent
Descended as he was, on both his father's and mother's side from Edward III, York was always destined to take a place in the higher reaches of the English nobility. However, the rank he ultimately achieved was as much a matter of fortune as of birth. He was born on 22nd September 1411, the son of Richard, Earl of Cambridge. His father, executed on August 5th 1415 for his part in the plot against Henry V, was the son of Edward III's fourth son Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York. His mother Anne, who died giving birth to him or soon after, was the daughter of Roger, Earl of March, grandson of Edward III's second son Lionel Duke of Clarence.

From his father he inherited neither land nor title. It was after his uncle Edward (his father's older brother) was killed at Agincourt that he inherited the title and (at his majority) the lands of the Duchy of York. The lesser title and (in due course) greater estates of the Earldom of March became his on the death of the 5th Earl, his maternal uncle Edmund Mortimer, on January 19th 1425.

Childhood and Upbringing (1411-1436)
As an orphan, the income and management of his lands became the property of the crown. Even though many of the lands of his uncle of York had been granted for life only, or to him and his male heirs, the remaining lands, concentrated in Lincolnshire and Northamptonshire, Yorkshire, and Wiltshire and Gloucestershire were considerable. The wardship of such an orphan was therefore a valuable gift of the Crown, and in October 1417 this was granted to Ralph Neville, 1st Earl of Westmoreland, with the young Richard under the guardianship of Sir Robert Waterton. Ralph was one of the most philoprogenitive peers of the age, and had many daughters needing husbands. As was his right, in 1424 he betrothed the 13-year-old Richard to his daughter Cecily, then aged 9.

In October 1425, when Ralph Neville died, he bequethed the wardship of York to his widow, Joan Beaufort. By now the wardship was even more valuable, as Richard had inherited the Mortimer estates on the death of the Earl of March. These manors were concentated in Wales ,and in the Welsh Borders around Ludlow.

Little is recorded of his early life. On the 19th May 1426 he was knighted at Leicester by the Duke of Bedford. In October 1429(or earlier) his marriage to Cecily Neville took place. On November 6th he was at coronation of Henry VI as King of England in Westminster Abbey. He then followed Henry to France, being present at his coronation as King of France in Notre Dame on December 16th 1431. Finally, on May 12, 1432 he came into his inheritance and was granted control of his estates.

France(1436-1439)
York first enters history with his expedition to France in May 1436. Henry V's conquests in France could not be sustained for ever - England either needed to conquer more territory to ensure permanent French subordination, or to concede territory to gain a negotiated settlement. During Henry VI's minority the Council took advantage of French weakness and the alliance with Burgundy to increase England's possessions, but following the Treaty of Arras in 1435 Burgundy ceased to recognise the King of England's claim to the French throne.

York's appointment was one of a number of stop-gap measures after the death of Bedford to try to retain French possessions until King Edward should assume personal rule. The fall of Paris (his original destination) led to his army being allocated to Normandy. Working with Bedford's captains, York had some success, re-capturing Fecamp and holding on to the Pays de Caux, while establishing good order and justice in the Duchy. His term was extended beyond the original 12 months, and he returned to England in November. In spite of his position as one of the leading nobles of the realm, he was not included in Henry VI's Council on his return.

France again(1440-1445)
Henry turned to York again in 1440 after peace negotiations failed. He was appointed Leiutnant of France from July 2nd, with the same powers that Bedford had been granted. As in 1437, he was able to count on the loyalty of Bedfords supporters, including Sir John Fastolf and Sir William Oldhall. However, in 1443 Henry put John Beaufort, the newly created Duke of Somerset in charge of an army of 8,000 men, initially intended for the relief of Gascony. This denied York much-needed men and resources, at a time when he was struggling to hold the borders of Normandy. Not only that, but the terms of Somerset's appointment could have caused York to feel that his own role as effective regent over the whole of Lancastrian France was reduced to that of governor of Normandy. Somerset's army achieved nothing, and eventually returned to Normandy, where Somerset died. This may have been the start of the hatred that York felt for the Beaufort family, that would later turn into civil war. English policy now turned back to a negotiated peace (or at least a truce), so the remainder of York's time in France was spent in routine administration and domestic matters. Duchess Cecily had accompanied him to Normandy, and his children Edward, Edmund and Elizabeth were born in Rouen.

Ireland(1445-1450)
At the end of his five year appointment (he returned to England on October 20th), he must have had reasonable expectations of reappointment. However, he had become associated with the english in Normandy who were opposed to Henry VI's policy towards France, some of whom (for example Sir William Oldhall and Sir Andrew Ogard) had followed him to England. Eventually (in December 1446) the lieutenancy went to Edmund Beaufort, who had become Earl of Somerset on the death of his brother (see above). During 1446-7 York attended meetings of Henry VI's Council and of Parliament, but most of his time was spent in administration of his estates on the Welsh borders.

His attitude in particular to Henry's surrender of Maine must have contributed to his appointment on July 30th as lieutenant of Ireland. In some ways a logical appointment (he was Earl of Ulster and had considerable estates in Ireland) it was also a convenient way of removing him from both England and France. His term of office was for ten years, ruling him out of consideration of any other high office during that period. Domestic matters kept him in England until June 1449, but when he did eventually go, it was with Cecily, (pregnant at the time) and an army of around 600 men. This suggests a stay of some time was envisaged. However, claiming lack of money to defend english possesions, York decided to return to England. His financial state may indded have been causing problems - by the mid 1440's he was owed nearly £40,000 by the crown, and the income from his estates was declining.

Leader of the Opposition(1450 - 1452)
In 1450 the defeats and failures of the previous ten years boiled over into serious political unrest. In January, the keeper of the privy seal was lynched; in May the Kings chief councillor, Suffolk, was murdered on his way into exile. The commons demanded that the King take back many of the grants of land and money he had made to his favourites. In June Kent and Sussex rose in revolt. Led by Jack Cade (taking the name Mortimer), they took control of London and killed Lord Say, the treasurer of England. In August, the final towns held in Normandy fell to the French' and refugees flooded back to England. On September 7th York landed at Beaumaris. Evading an attempt by Henry to intercept him, and gathering followers as he went, York arrived in London on September 27th. After an inconclusive (and possibly violent) meeting with the King, York continued to recruit, both in East Anglia and the west. The violence in London was such that Somerset, back in England after the collapse of English Normandy, was put in the Tower for his own safety. In December parliament elected York's chamberlain, Sir William Oldhall, as speaker.

York's public stance was that of a reformer, demanding better government and the prosecution of the traitors who had lost northern France. Judging by his later actions, there may also have been a more hidden motive - the destruction of Somerset, who was soon released from the Tower. Although granted another office (Justice of the Forest south of the Trent), York still lacked any real support outside Parliament and his own retainers. In April, Somerset was released from the Tower and appointed Captain of Calais. When the MP for Bristol, Thomas Young(one of York's councillors) proposed that York be recognised as heir to the throne, he was sent to the Tower and Parliament dissolved. Henry VI was prompted into belated reforms, which went some way to restore public order and improve the royal finances. Frustrated by his lack of political power, York retired to Ludlow.

In 1452, York made another bid for power - but not to become king himself. Protesting his loyalty, he aimed to be recognised as Henry VI's heir, while also trying to destroy the Earl of Somerset (as a Beaufort descendent, Henry may have preferred him over York to succeed him). Gathering men on the march from Ludlow, York headed for London, to find the city gates barred against him on Henry's orders. At Dartford in Kent, with his army outnumbered, and the support of only two of the nobility, York was forced to come to an agreement with Henry. Allowed to present his complaints against Somerset to the king, he then was taken to London and after two weeks of virtual huse arrest, was forced to swear an oath of allegiance at St Paul's cathedral.

Protector of the Realm(1453-1454)
By the summer of 1453, York seemed to have lost his power struggle. Henry embarked on a series of judicial tours, punishing York's tenants who had been involved in the debacle at Dartford. The Queen was pregnant, and even if she should miscarry, the marriage of the newly ennobled Edmund Tudor to Margaret Beaufort provided for an alternative line of succession. Bordeaux had been re-captured the previous year. The parliament of 1453 (meeting at Reading) attainted Sir William Oldhall, and granted Henry a generous financial settlement. By July York had lost both his Offices - Lieutenant of Ireland and Justice of the Forest south of the Trent.

Then, in August, Henry suffered a catastrophic mental breakdown. Perhaps brought on by the news of the defeat at Castillon in Gascony, he became completely unresponsive, unable to speak and having to be led from room to room. The council tried to carry on as though the King's disability would be brief. However, eventually they had to admit that something had to be done. In October, invitations for a Great Council were issued, and although Somerset tried to have him excluded, York (the premier Duke of the realm) was included. Somerset's fears were to prove well-grounded, for in November he was committed to the Tower. Despite the opposition of the Queen, on March 27th, York was appointed Protector of the Realm and Chief Councillor.

York's appointment of hs brother-in-law, Salisbury, as Chancellor was significant. Henry's burst of activity in 1453 had seen him try to stem the violence caused by various disputes betewwen noble families. These disputes gradually polarised around the long-standing animosity between the Neville's and the Percy's. Unfortunately for Henry, Somerset (and therefore the king) became identified with the Percy cause. This drove the Nevilles into the arms of York, who now for the first time had support among a section of the nobility.

St. Albans(1455-1456)
"If Henry's insanity was a tragedy, his recovery was a national disaster" (Storey). In January 1455 Henry lost little time in reversing York's actions. Somerset was released and restored to favour. York was deprived of the Captaincy of Calais(granted to Somerset) and of the office of Protector. Salisbury resigned as Chancellor. York, Salisbury and Warwick were threatened when a Great Council was called to meet in Leicester (away from Somerset's enemies in London) on 21st May. York and his Neville relations recruited in the north and probably the Welsh borders - by the time Somerset realised what was happening, there was no time to raise a large force to support the King.

Once York took his army south of Leicester, thus barring the route to the Great Council, the dispute between him and the king regarding Somerset would have to be settled by force. On May 22nd, the king and Somerset, with a hastily assembled and poorly equipped army of around 2,000 arrived at St Albans. York, Warwick and Salisbury were already there, with a larger and better equipped army. More importantly, at least some of their soldiers would have had experience in the frequent border skirmishes with the Scots and the Welsh.

The fight which followed hardly deserves the term battle. Possibly as few as 50 men were killed, but among them were Somerset and the two Percy lords, Northumberland and Clifford. York and the Nevilles had therefore succeeded in the murder of their enemies, while York's capture of the King gave him the chance to resume the power he had lost in 1453. It was vital to keep Henry alive - his death would have led, not to York becoming king himself, but to the minority rule of his newly-born son. Since York's support among the nobility was small, he would be unable to dominate a minority council domninated by Margaret of Anjou.

In the custody of York, the king was returned to London, York and Salisbury riding alongside, Warwick bearing the royal sword in front. On May 25th, Henry received the crown from York, in a clearly symbolic display of power. York made himself Constable of England, and appointed Warwick Captain of Calais. York's position was enhanced when some of the nobility agreed to join his government, including Lord Fauconberg, who had served under him in France. For the rest of the summer York held the king prisoner, either in Hertford castle or (in order to be enthroned in Parliament in July) in London. When Parliament met again in November the throne was empty, and it was reported that the king was ill again. York resumed the office of Protector, an although he surrendered it when the king recovered in February 1456, it seemed that this time Henry was willing to accept that York and his supporters would play a major part in the government of the realm. Salisbury and Warwick continued as councillors, and Warwick was confirmed as Captain of Calais. In June York himself was sent north to defend the border against a threatened invasion by the King of Scotland. However, the king once again became under the control of a dominant figure, this time one harder to replace than Suffolk or Somerset. For the rest of his reign, it would be the queen, Margaret of Anjou, who would control the king.

Loveday(1456-1458)
Although the queen had now taken the place formerly held by Suffolk or Somerset, her position, at least at first, was not as dominant. York had his Lieutenancy of Ireland renewed, and he continued to attend meetings of the Council. However, in August 1456 the court moved to Coventry, in the heart of the Queen's lands. How York was treated now depended on how powerful the Queen's views were. York was regarded with suspicion on three fronts: he threatened the sucession of the young Prince of Wales; he was apparently negotiating for the marriage of his son Edward into the Burgundian ruling Family; and as a supporter of the Nevilles, he was contributing to the major cause of disturbance in the kingdom - the Percy/Neville feud.

Here, the Nevilles lost ground - Salisbury gradually ceased to attend meetings of the council, and when his brother the Bishop of Durham died, the new appointment was a member of the queens inner circle. The Percies were shown greater favour both at court and in the struggle for power on the Scottish Border. Henry's attempts at reconciliation between the factions divided by the killings at St Albans reached their climax with the Loveday on March 24 1458. However, the lords concerned had earlier turned London into an armed camp, and the public expressions of amity seemed not to have lasted beyond the ceremony.

Ludford(1459)
In June 1459 a great council was summoned to meet at Coventry. York, the Nevilles and some other lords refused to appear, fearing that the armed forces that had been commanded to assemble the previous month had been summoned to arrest them. Instead, York and Salisbury recruited in their strongholds and at Worcester met Warwick, who had brought with him his troops from Calais. Parliament was summoned to meet at Coventry in November, but without York and the Nevilles. This could only mean that they were to be accused of treason. On the 11th of October York tried by move south, but was forced to head for Ludlow. On the 12th October, at Ludford, York once again faced Henry just as he had at Dartford seven years earlier. Warwicks troops from Calais refused to fight, and the rebels fled - York to Ireland, Warwick, Salisbury and York's son Edward to Calais. York's wife Cecily and their two younger sons (George and Richard) were captured in Ludlow castle and imprisoned at Coventry.

The wheel of fortune (1459-1460)
York's retreat worked to his advantage. He was still Lieutenant of Ireland, and attempts to replace him failed. The Irish parliament backed him, providing offers of both military and financial support. Warwick's (possibly inadvertant) return to Calais also proved fortunate - his control of the channel meant that pro yorkist propaganda, emphasising loyalty to the king while decrying his wicked councillors, could be spread around southern england. Such was the yorkists naval dominance that Warwick was able to sail to Ireland in March 1460, meet York and return to Calais in May. Warwick's control of Calais was to prove to be influential with the wool-merchants in London.

In December 1459 York (along with Warwick and Salisbury) had suffered attainder - his life was forfeit, and his lands reverted to the king - his heirs would not inherit. This was the most extreme punishment a member of the nobility could suffer, and York was now in the same situation as Bolingbroke in 1398. Only a succesful invasion of England would restore his fortune. Assuming the invasion was successful, York had 3 options - become protector again, disinherit the king so that York's son would succeed, or claim the throne for himself.

On June 26th, Warwick and Salisbury landed at Sandwich. The men of Kent, always ready to revolt, rose to join them. London opened its gates to the Nevilles on July 2nd. York remained in Ireland. Not until September 9th did he set foot in England, and when he did, he acted as a King. Marching under the arms of Lionel of Clarence, as he approached London he displayed a banner of the arms of England. By this time, Warwick had already defeated the royal forces at Northampton (July 10th) and captured the king. A Parliament called to meet on 7th October repealed all the legislation of the Coventry parliament the previous year.

On the 10th October, York arrived in London and took residence in the royal palace. Entering Parliament with his sword borne upright before him, he claimed the throne of England. Once again, his narrow support among his peers led to failure. After weeks of negotiation, the best that could be achieved was that York and his heirs would be recognised as Henry's successor. However, Parliament did grant York extraordinary executive powers to protect the realm, and with the king effectively in custody, York and Warwick were the de facto rulers of the country.

While this was happening, the Lancastrian loyalists were arming. Faced with the threat of attack from the Percies, and with the queen trying to gain the support of the king of Scotland, on December 2nd York and Salisbury headed north. With them went York's son Edmund. They arrived at Sandal Castle on December 21st, to find the situation bad and getting worse. Forces loyal to Henry controlled the city of York, and nearby Pontefract Castle was also in hostile hands. On December 30th, York and his forces left Sandal, possibly to obtain supplies. Intercepted near Wakefield by a larger Lancastrian force, York and his son were killed. Salisbury was captured during the battle and executed the following day. York was buried at Pontefract, but his head was put on a pike by the victorious Lancastrian armies. His remains were later moved to Fotheringhay Church.

Richard's eldest son finally succeeded in putting his dynasty on the throne in 1461 as King Edward IV. King Edward V was York's grandson, and King Richard III was another of his sons. The Tudor King Henry VIII was his great-grandson.

His children with Cecily Neville include:


 * 1) Joan of York (1438).
 * 2) Anne of York (August 10, 1439 – January 14, 1476), consort to Henry Holland, 3rd Duke of Exeter.
 * 3) Henry of York (b. February 10, 1441).
 * 4) Edward IV of England (April 28, 1442 – April 9, 1483).
 * 5) Edmund, Earl of Rutland (May 17, 1443 – December 31, 1460).
 * 6) Elizabeth of York (April 22, 1444 – after January, 1503), consort to John de la Pole, 2nd Duke of Suffolk.
 * 7) Margaret of Burgundy (May 3, 1446 – November 23, 1503).
 * 8) William of York (b. July 7, 1447).
 * 9) John of York (b. November 7, 1448).
 * 10) George, Duke of Clarence (October 21, 1449 – February 18, 1478).
 * 11) Thomas of York (born c. 1451).
 * 12) Richard III of England (October 2, 1452 – August 22, 1485).
 * 13) Ursula of York (born c. 1454).

A paper crown
There is no contemporary portrait of Richard of York. None of his affinity (or his enemies) left a memoir of him. All that remains is the record of his actions, and the propaganda issued by both sides. Faced with the lack of evidence, we can only infer his intentions from his actions. Few men have come so close to the throne as York, who died not knowing that in only a few months his son Edward would become king. Even at the time, opinion was divided as to his true motives. Did he always want the throne, or did Henry VI's poor government and the hostility of Henry's favourites leave him no choice? Was the alliance with Warwick the deciding factor? Or did he just respond to events?

Titles

 * - style="text-align: center;"





External link

 * A profile of him

Richard, Herzog von York ヨーク公リチャード Richard Plantagenet, 3. hertug av York Ricardo, Duque de York Ричард Йоркский Rikard, hertig av York