User:Tiana.hodzic/sandbox

Sex Trafficking- Causes
There is not one simple factor that perpetuates sex trafficking, rather a complex, interconnected web of political, socioeconomic, governmental, and societal factors.[15] The causes of sex trafficking which have been identified lie at the intersections of these factors. There are three types of causes which have been identified: gender hierarchies, migration for work (pull factors), and neoliberal globalization (push factors).

Many scholars critique the power hierarchies based on gender, race, and class which underlie economic systems as perpetuators of women’s vulnerability to sex trafficking. Copley argues that women in underdeveloped countries are powerless due to these hierarchies of power. Matusek also argues this point, noting that globalization spreads power hierarchies while spreading economic policy. Ideas of gender are thus perpetuated though globalization, leaving women vulnerable. Matusek cites masculinity as privileged with power and control in these hierarchies. Femininity, she notes, is associated with submissive and passive qualities. Femininity’s lack of power leaves women to be used by men and consequently be seen as disposable. This view of women is perpetuated through the globalization of power hierarchies, which Matusek argues justifies and normalizes violence and power against women. This normalization of violence and power is a key player in the existence and continuation of sex trafficking. Vesna Nikovic-Ristanovic also cites this normalization of violence and power as a cause of sex trafficking.

Nikovic-Ristanovic analyzes the role of perceived femininity in women’s vulnerability to sex trafficking, by specifically looking at the links between militarism and female sexuality. Nikovic-Ristanovic cites a connection between war rapes and forced prostitution and sex trafficking. The way women’s bodies are used in war relate to the normalization of violence and power against women. Nikovic-Ristanovic argues that military presence, even in times of peace, promote ideas of gender which render women vulnerable. These ideas concern hegemonic masculinity, which Nikovic-Ristanovic defines as the hyper sexuality of men and the submissiveness or passivity of women and girls. Nikovic-Ristanovic notes that the global acceptance of this definition justifies exploitation and violence against women since women are viewed as sex objects for the fulfillment of male’s sexual desire. This Western ideal of heteronormative sexuality, Nikovic-Ristanovic argues, is also perpetuated through media and advertisements, in which women are encouraged to appear sexually attractive for men.

Kim Anh Duong argues that social narratives about women which arise from power hierarchies, coupled with women’s economic realities, render women vulnerable to exploitation and sex trafficking. Duong identifies the prevailing narrative of women as the disadvantaged victim. She cites powerlessness as the result of this narrative, which is further perpetuated by social and economic realities which result from development process which leave women dependent on men. This overall powerlessness, according to Duong, makes women easy targets of exploitation and violence.

Susan Tiefenbrun, like Duong, notes women’s lower status of power and consequential dependence on men.[Tiefenbrun] Tiefenbrun, unlike Duong, cites cultural norms as the cause of this vulnerability.[Tiefenbrun] She argues that cultural norms deprive women of access to and time for receiving an education or learning skills to improve employment opportunities.[Tiefenbrun] This lack of education and access to employment results in women’s dependence on men.[Tiefenbrun] Tiefenbrun argues that women’s dependence renders them more vulnerable to traffickers.[Tiefenbrun]

Another school of thought attributes women’s migration for work in a context of strict immigration controls as the primary factor in women’s vulnerability in becoming trafficked for sex. There has been an increase in women migrating within and across borders. Duong cites a demand for women migrant workers which encourages migration. The globalization of neoliberalism has shifted the global economy’s focus to export production– Duong notes that there is a demand for women in export production because employers are able to pay them the lowest wages. Another reason for the demand of women workers is that there is a demand for care work. Since care work is gendered as women’s work, Duong argues that women are encouraged to migrate in order to fill this demand. Janie Chuang is one scholar who notes the strict border controls which leave women who migrate for work in informal labor sectors, such as for care work, with little opportunity for legal migration. Chuang notes that women are thus more vulnerable to being taken advantage of by sex traffickers who provide opportunities for illegal migration. Strict immigration laws are also cited by Tiefenbrun as a key factor in individuals entering sex trafficking because women will agree to debt bondages and sex traffickers’ incentives in order to flee their social and economic realities.[Tiefenbrun]

One cause for women’s migration that is widely agreed upon by scholars is the economic pressure upon women due to neoliberal globalization. Siddharth Kara argues that globalization and the spread of Western Capitalism drive inequality and rural poverty, which are the material causes for sex trafficking.[Kara] Dong-Hoon Seol points out unequal development between countries as an effect of the globalization of neoliberalism. He argues that the growing disparity of wealth between developed and underdeveloped countries leads to migration of women from underdeveloped countries.

Duong cites structural adjustment programs (SAPs), an aspect of development policies in the globalization of neoliberalism, as a cause for women’s poverty, unemployment, and low wages which promote migration. SAPs affect men and women differently, she argues, because men and women experience poverty differently. This is known as the feminization of poverty. Much of women’s time is spent doing unpaid labor such as housework and care work, leading to an overall lower income. Duong further argues that women are placed at a greater disadvantage due to their lack of access to land and other resources. Matusek also argues that the unequal distribution of resources and power lead to both push and pull factors of migration. According to Matusek, women are pushed to migrate on account of a lack of education and employment opportunities.

Other scholars focus on the demand for sex itself as a cause of sex trafficking. The pull factor comes from globalization creating a market around sex. Matusek cites the commodification aspect of capitalism as the cause for the industrialization of sex. The pull factor comes from globalization creating a market around sex. Seol also cites the globalization of the commodification aspect of capitalism as a cause of sex trafficking.

Evaluating Wikipedia– Gender and Development
Run-on sentences are scattered throughout the article– it creates convoluted semantics and confusion. These sentences leave less space for developing and defining main terms and ideas. For example, the term "Third World women" is dropped yet never defined. In the context of gender and development it is crucial to understand how this term came about and who is categorized by it. Western feminism and the western approach is therefore also neglected which is how in class we even began understanding these policies. This base foundation creates a clearer image of shifts in global economy. In the talk section it is evident that some changes have been made to the article. One change made was the addition of more headers. Tagging these on the end made them a bit random. If the ideas and concepts at the end were incorporated throughout the article, there would be a more well-rounded understanding of how and why each approach was created and why it was criticized. It would also provide a more cohesive understanding of the theoretical and conceptual aspects. The other approaches section was also added so that the article was less economically driven. One way to combat the heavy economically attention is to include more feminist perspective. It is addressed yet not fleshed through, leaving the discussion of gender and development more concerned about the development and economical gain than the inherent flaws in structure and implementation of economic approaches. Considering that this article is a part of the WikiProject Gender Studies and WikiProject International Development there should be greater sensitivity to what specifically about why women's experience and intersectionality concerns these approaches.

The lead section gives a preview into the article as it does list of the sections that will be discussed. It also attempts to explain the process of considering gender when talking about development. Feminism is briefly touched on and doesn't give a full representation or understanding the effects of colonialism, industrialization, or modernization. If there was a subheading devoted to the history leading up to WID and why gender is so crucial to include in the development discussion, the article would be stronger. It is necessary to understand this history to understand why certain approaches were critiqued and why different approaches evolved.

After reading the article, I didn't have a sense of why it was important for gender to be in the development discussion. The motivations and underlying reasons for each approach mentioned aren't clear enough to hold the weight they do. Perhaps if it was written this way it would be more biased. In the WID section, it needs to be clearer that the approach was created in order to promote equal footing for women and men. The relationship between productivity, labor, and income needs to be addressed as well since it is mentioned in the criticism. Before criticizing a point, it must first be addressed. The critique section itself fails to mention that the WID approach does not acknowledge flaws in the economic system. This is important because knowing this criticism can help the reader understand how the next approaches developed and attempt to address the economic structure itself. There also needs to be attention placed on how WID was institutionalized because implementation is crucial for change yet can also skew the goals of an approach.

The WAD section poorly defines the origins of the WAD approach as well as the basis for the approach. Specifically, attention needs to be drawn to the call for change within the economic structure for development and how this structure has its roots in colonialism. This is so important because this is the root reason why development needs to address gender. In the GAD approach section as well, capital accumulation and reproduction– two key concepts mentioned in our text– are not mentioned. The article not only fails to mention reproduction but rather states that it is ignored when in fact it is understood through unpaid labor sectors and the perceived value of women's labor. There seems to be a lack of understanding of the feminist agenda. An example is how the GAD attempted to grapple with choosing between short term and long term feminist goals and whether to address immediate hardship and safety or work towards longer term goals. The heavier focus on intersectionality in the GAD approach and the reasons for such focus are neglected as well.

Neoliberalism isn't clearly defined anywhere in the article even though 'Neoliberal Approaches' is its own section. Smart economics is also poorly defined. These two concepts seem to be quite disconnected from the first section on the WID, WAD, and GAD approaches. With a clearer definition there would be a more cohesive understanding of gender and development. There seems to be a lot of focus on the criticisms of both, so this inequality between explanation and criticism needs to be addressed. One other subject matter that is mentioned which needs more elaborating is the World Bank's role and what effect it has on development and women's livelihoods globally. If this were expanded, the article would relay a clearer understanding of the critiques of neoliberalism. A discussion of values needs to be had not only in this section but also in the previous section when introducing colonialism's role. To understand the feminist critiques, there needs to be an understanding of values. The World Bank's values and motivations impact implementation of the feminist agenda. Since values are not addressed, the consequence of values is not realized and therefore the article lacks.

It seems that overall the article lacks in understanding the core feminist agendas that motivate the criticism and evolution of these economic approaches. In class we use a feminist mindset to understand economics, yet this article uses economics to attempt to navigate feminist critique of economics. The sources used for the article are reliable and plentiful.

Adding to Wikipedia

I added to the Globalization page. I added a sentence under the Social Inequality subheading. I added a sentence about the necessity to acknowledge intersectionality while addressing inequality. Intersectionality is an aspect that was not addressed in many of the earlier economic approaches we discussed in class and read about, proving that it is overlooked much of the time. It wasn't mentioned in the article either. (I apologize this is such a short sentence, I didn't realize there needed to be a few paragraphs about this and class is starting.)