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Introduction English as we speak it now or as was spoken in the Middle English era was a result of social differences, cultural diversity and the various modes of usage. Its flexibility with changing historical circumstances and communication necessities maintained its relevance and ensured the survival to date. The derivation was from innumerable sources- from the language patterns of the footmen, miners, missionaries, poets, farmers, royalty and even play-writes such as Shakespeare, extending to the Jamaican English, to the Language of the thieves and the underworld, to the language of the royal court (Mugglestone 2012, 2). This confirms James Murrays saying, ‘No man’s English is all English’. The Transition. The transition from Old English to Middle English involved a change from the synthetic to the analytic form of language: synthetic referring to the use of morphological representation (by use of inflexions) of grammar relationships and analytic referring to the syntactical representation of relationships (Mugglestone 2012, 82). The Old to Middle English transition occurred over a number of centuries and can be categorized into several major catalytic events. These include; the monastic reform, King Alfred’s educational efforts, vernacular translation of texts during the spread of Christianity in Britain and the multiple conquests and social-cultural changes that occurred as a result. The transition was, however, majorly from language contact, which resulted in lexical expansion, changes in syntax and orthography, morphological variations, and phonological transitions. The following paragraphs represent features of Old and Middle English to show this transition. Old English refers to the form of English used between 450 and 1150AD in England. The Oxford History of English describes it as having similar aspects with Latin in the use of the last part of a word to represent the function. Due to its development in the face of highly dynamic social, political and economic times, the language was unstable compared to Middle English. Old English also had, in its qualities, a case distinction in the tenses, adjectives, noun and pronouns, moods, numbers and persons. It was divided into four main dialects, the West Saxon, the Kentish, the Mercian and the Northumbrian dialects. There was widespread use of word inflexions in their endings and relied on this for communication. Inflexion was greatly used in all almost all words, and for the case and numbers with definite articles. This illustrated in the following text: Whan that he saugh that al the peple lough, "Namoore of this, for it is right ynough.

Old English literature involved both prose and poetry with the verses in poetry being typically alliterative- lacking an end-rhyme, having two half-lines plus a caesura and based on individual lines. `Its verbs could be categorised into strong, weak and anomalous verbs which occurred in only two tenses, present and past. Strong verbs patterns featured only four forms, present, first person, second person and third persons, while weak verbs had only three forms similar to Middle English. The forms included present, past and participle forms and the typical use of dental suffix in the indication of non-present. Nouns in the era existed in four cases and were composed of three genders. Middle English, on the other hand, appears in use in the eleventh century and its use extending into the late fourteenth century: 1066-1500AD. It replaced the Old English form developed in Wessex and achieved even greater distribution in its use. Different from the Germanic Old English, Middle English was Dutch-related. The use of inflexion was minimized, with the Wessex versions being simplified. Unlike its non- standardized counterpart, Middle English dialects were standardized in the fifteenth century with the London dialect being the standard. Middle English Literature was mainly in French during the early Middle English era and switching to English during later periods. Compared to Old English, it involved more genres including classical tales, travelogues, romance and mystics. (Lass 2000, 7-41) Morphologically, the use of pronouns thou/ thee and ye/ you is predominant in Middle English as shown in the following text, ‘I prey yow, that ye kisse the pardoner; And Pardoner, I prey thee, drawe thee neer,’ (The Pardoner’s Tale). Late in this era, however, the use of the second person pronouns thou and thee in object and subject positions declined together with the – (e)st ending of verbs, further reducing the inflexion that was on a decline since Old English. The use of do also appeared in popular use in this era; being used with a higher frequency than today. Middle English vowels had long high-mid front and back /e:/ and /o:/ monophthongs (such as in boot and day). The Great Vowel Shift (1500-1700) was not an abrupt event: its origins began in the late Middle English period, seen with the development of the short vowel system and phonological changes. The Shift preserved this system the short vowel system but centralized high vowels and lowered the high and mid-short vowels. The Borrowing The classical meaning of borrowing is asking for something or receiving something for a particular period after which it is returned to the owner. However, the returning part does not apply when it comes to loanwords in language. The presence of loanwords in a language signifies contact between two communities speaking different languages or different dialects of the same language. During the duration of contact, both of the communities can borrow words from the other. However, more often times than not, the borrowing is not of equal magnitude: the superior community or kingdom of the two is normally the source. Borrowing a continuous process and is necessary for the development of the vocabulary. Loanwords can basically be categorized into two. The first category being the loanwords proper. Semantic loans and loan translations form the secondary category. Loan transitions (claque) involve the transferring of lexical elements of one language to another, but not the original form of the word. An example is the word wellwillende, which is Old English for the Latin word benovolens, meaning benevolent. Semantic loans, on the other hand, involve the replacement of the meaning of an existing word in the receiving language to represent the meaning from the source language. This is shown in replacement of the meaning of the Old English synn, initially used to mean crime to mean transgression (ecclesiastical), in borrowing from the Latin word peccatum. (Mugglestone 2012, 90) Reasons for Borrowing. There had to be reasons why one language would want to use words from another language. From the analysis of the History of English, we are able to observe that whenever there was a change in government and the subsequent use of the conqueror’s language in administration, a lot of borrowing took place. The gradual infiltration of the foreign aspects of the language of the invaders is evident in the Middle English structure and use. An example is the Norman Conquest of 1066 and the subsequent ascension of the Norman Kings to authority that resulted in the settlement of a large number of Norman French in Britain. This resulted in the integration of French loanwords in language. The conquests also played a role in the traditions and customs due to change so in the social and power structure and the visions of the monarchies. This was because of the advantage in landing job positions and even in the trade by the commoners. This cultural exchange also had linguistic consequences: by the third century, the sons of Celtic kings allied with Rome were growing up speaking and writing Latin. This home-grown elite consequently had access to high social positions in the governing of the province. (Singh 2005, 69) Government policies also influenced the borrowing of some words in the transition between Old English and Middle English. King Alfred became the King of Wessex in 871 AD. He had the ambition to make his kingdom a centre of educational and scholarly achievement. Before his time, most intellectual property was in Latin and therefore the information was only known to a few especially scholars and scribes. Alfred spearheaded the education program by the use of scholars not just from Wessex but also from Mercia and other regions. The translation process was no easy task as the translators often lacked exact words to represent the rich Latin in the limited vocabulary of the Old English. The king’s efforts in the incorporation of English in intellectual pursuits and matters of the court gave power to the then vernacular tongue. The West Saxon dialect, due to these efforts, became the most represented in literature. During the translation process from Latin, certain loanwords were absorbed into English. Trade also stands out as an influence in the adoption of loanwords. Inter-regional trade between two communities meant that traders had to be bilingual for trading activities to occur. The contact between the Romans and the Celts in trade led to the adoption of Latin loanwords in the Celtic language. Trade relations between the Anglo-Saxons and the Roman traders led to the incorporation of Latin words in Old English such as –monger (trader) and pound (weight). Close ancestry between two communities is also a factor influencing the borrowing and incorporation of loanwords: especially the ease with which both took place. The Vikings and the Anglo-Saxons both had a shared Germanic origin. This eased the Viking assimilation process to the extent that both languages were used interchangeably: an example is in the use of the Old English word shirt and the Old Norse word skirt to mean clothing. It is likely that the two languages were also used simultaneously, given their high degree of mutual intelligibility, and as the two groups mixed through marriage, there may have been extensive lexical mixing. (Singh 2005, 91) The translation was also a reason that necessitated borrowing especially in circumstances where vocabulary was lacking or deficient. More commonly, borrowing and translation started with bilingual speakers or people exposed to the borrowed language for a period, using some words either consciously or unconsciously. Gradually, the other speakers who were not able to speak the language began to adopt the use of the new word, often with a different pronunciation. The Donor Languages. English, in its development from the before the Old English to the Modern English, adopted loanwords from diversely numerous languages: the number increasing with the towards the modern English era. Scandinavian, Dutch, French and Latin contributed to the earlier era (Mugglestone, 5). This ascending pattern is probably due to an increase in the number of speakers and globalization. The periods of borrowing can be subdivided into periods. The Germanic, the Old English and the Middle English periods have been used in the following paragraphs to explain the transition between Old to Middle English. Germanic Period The Germanic period (The Proto-Germanic era) represents the period even before the Jute, the Old Saxon and Angle migration from Germany. This period borrowed numerous loanwords from the Latin language. This is evident the strong similarity between the early old English and Latin texts. The Old English Period. The Old English period is the period between the settlement of the Anglo-Saxons in the British Isles and the Norman invasion. In the discussion of transitions from Old to Middle English, it would be irresponsible of us not to give credit to the specific donor languages and explore their individual contributions. Latin, Celtic and Old Norse have been identified as the main contributors, with the Celtic contribution in the Old English period and the Old Norse loanwords appearing much later. Latin The history of Latin in England begins in the year 597 during the Roman Mission. The Latin contribution is believed to have occurred in two eras: The Roman era (around 400AD) and the Sixth-century era, where contacts in war and trade facilitated this exchange. The Celts’ contact with the Romans led to the borrowing of Latin loanwords, which were passed on to Old English during their contact with the Anglo-Saxons. Examples of these are mynster (Monastery), candle and peru (pear). Even though the Anglo-Saxon came during the decline of the Roman presence in the British Isles, they still had some contact with Latin via wars and trade. In their conquests and settlement, they must have also found themselves close to the Roman settlements and camps resulting in language contact. As a result, Latin donated about one hundred and seventy-five words, examples include –monger, butter, ceap (cheap), cheese, pepper, pud (pound) and mynet(mint). However, despite its widespread use in literature, its use in the speech was quite the contrary: both limited and scarce. It was also not frequently learnt as a first language; for most people had English or French as their first language. The Sixth century and beyond provides the second era and was intricately connected with Christianity. The conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity because of the missionary contact led to the borrowing of Latin religious words such as apostol, martir, temple and altar. The use of Latin in scholarly works and in the early church is believed to have brought multilingualism in Britain. ‘He was eloquent both in French and Latin, having regard rather to the sense of what he had to say than to ornaments of speech. He read English perfectly and used to preach in English to the people, but in the speech of Norfolk, where he was born and bred, and to this...’ (Mugglestone 2012, 77)

Celtic The native English population was Celtic; it was therefore inevitable that the Celts would contribute loanwords to the language. The 55 BC Roman invasion in the reign of Julius Caesar began their contact with Latin, even though this failed, trade continued. The successful 43 AD invasion and the resulting settlement, with use of Latin as the administrative language, led to the spread of Latin and the Roman culture in Britain. Some of the Latin words that were loaned during this era were passed on to Old English. The Anglo-Saxons raided the British lands soon after the Roman troops were pulled back to Rome to help fight the invasion. The Celtic tribes were subdued and thus became subjects to the Anglo-Saxons. Even though Celtic was the language of the natives and was widely used in the British Isles, it seemed to have contributed very little compared to the other languages ( approximately twelve words). This is because of their supposed inferiority compared to their invaders, the Anglo-Saxons, hence they were more inclined to adopt their language and contribute very little. The Celts contributed majorly geographical names: place names such as London, Devon torr (peak), kent, physical feature names such as the Thames, Esk and Avon. Between the ninth and the tenth centuries, it is believed that this Scandinavian language ‘donated’ a couple of words to English such as place name suffixes. Old Norse. The Viking (the Danes) raids began in the late eighth century: this represented the beginning of contact of the Anglo- Saxon and the Vikings. The Vikings conquered territories such as East Anglia. The Wedmore treaty between Gulthrum and King Alfred gave Vikings settlement in lands in East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria. Soon after the conversion of Gulthrum and other Vikings to Christianity and the gradual assimilation established contact between Old Norse and English. As a result of settlement and intermarriage, structural changes in Old English and borrowing some lexical aspects of Old Norse; both being used simultaneously. Old English adopted th- plural forms from Old Norse and common words such as law, take, hit and sister. Middle English Period The Middle English era stretches from the Norman Conquest to the fifteenth century (1100-1500). Borrowing being a continuous process, the Scandinavian contributions also stretch notably from the Old English era to this one. The era represented the dissolution of the Germanic language structures and their replacement with the French and Norman structures. Anglo-French The name Anglo-French refers to post-conquest French language used England (Sighn 2005, 107). The Normans were assimilated Vikings, who had been absorbed in France as their counterparts were assimilated in England. The marriage of a Norman French wife by the Danish King Cnut marked the beginning of Norman assimilation since their son Edward became King over England. This was followed by the conquest and ascension of a Norman king, William to the English throne. William displaced all English nobility and leaders of the church from their stations, giving such positions to the Norman allies. Anglo-French and Latin thus became the language of governance, court and literature. Because of the offices the Normans acquired after they settled, French words were absorbed and used in the following semantic contexts: Church- abbots, chaplain, dean, confessor, chapel, commandment, prayer and the sacrament, and Courts- dukes, counts, barons and prince titles. Legal loanwords included; judge, plaintiff, felon, court, prison, attorney, jury( Singh 2005, 124), Military terms such as war, armour, archer, captains, lieutenants and sergeants, Food- beef, mutton veal, roast, fry. French French is the most popular language of the three main donors. The factors that affected its use can be divided into two, political and linguistic factors. Norman Conquest of the period around 1000 AD represents the political factor. The Normans were French-speaking Scandinavians, hence after their English conquest, French began its popular use in ancient England. This has been discussed in the paragraphs above. The Linguistic history represents the adoption of French due to the development of treaties that favoured education in French. This era is also defined as the Central French Era. French was first taught to the highborn in England and was associated with elevated social class. It later trickled down to the rest of the population. The reason why it was held in high esteem and pride is that French was the international language of the time hence had more numerous functions in both culture and education. These factors were responsible for the use and the resulting borrowing of French words in English. This intercontinental popularity of French continued well into the 15th century after which there erupted resurgence in the use and status of English. Central French led the adoption of different forms related word in Anglo-Norman French. These include words like chattels, poach, chase, lance and pincer. Its influence in English was more pronounced after the1250. This is shown in the change in words beginning with ‘c’ changing to ‘ch’. Hence, the words like chaplain and chief come to form the Central French form while the chef and champagne words are found in the Anglo-Norman French. The French influence on is seen the word pardon which has its origins from the Old French pardon which meant indulgence or remission. It was incorporated into the religious semantic field around c 1300 and was used in a strict ecclesiastical context to mean to release from punishment or to forgive. Semantic Fields A semantic (lexical) field refers to a collection of words related with respect to a particular topic. Examples included the church, government, law and the military. War and battle form one of the semantic fields in the English language that the adopted word entered. In periods of war and conquest, borrowing of loanwords, which are war-related such as army, ranks. The theme of heroism also belonged to this semantic field. In the line from Geoffrey’s “The Pardoner’s Tale”; But right anon the worthy knyght abigan, Whan that he saugh that al the peple lough, "Namoore of this, for it is right ynough. Sir Pardoner, be glad and myrie of cheere; And ye, sir Hoost, that been to me so deere, The term worthy signifies heroism of the knight and as a result was able to step in between an argument between two sirs. The incorporation of military French terms in Williams reign such as war, armor, captains, lieutenants and sergents . Religion or in this case Christianity forms another lexical field. The church was one of the major semantic fields entered by the loanword. Originally, the Anglo-Saxons were pagans- in the Christian sense. The Latin loanwords such as those used to refer and describe God were non-existent hence there was a change in the Latin word meaning to accommodate the new religion or converting the words to refer to the spiritual. Example of words included angel, diabolos (devil) Physical features also form a lexical field. The Celts contributed much to the names of places and physical features such as rivers; Lune, Derwent and London. A combination of names, as is with the Anglo-Saxon language, was also used in the creation of new names an example being Breedon (Bre for hill). Compound words produced by the Celtic word bre and hill with Anglo-Saxon suffixes are seen in Brill (Br and the Old English hyll), brewood. Conclusion It is evident from the history that the borrowing of words from the above languages was generally because of bilingualism. Bilingual speakers of two languages were prone to using words and even pronunciations of one language in another. This was either uh done to show mastery of both or to complement lack of vocabulary in one language needed to communicate the desired idea: ‘Loanwords enter a language on account of either need or prestige’ (Mugglestone, 91). Other users of either language then pick up the use in one language and pronounce it in a native way, thus completing the cycle.

References 1.	Mugglestone, Lynda (ed.). 2012. The Oxford History of English. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2nd ed) 2.	Singh, Ishtla. 2005. The History of English. A student’s guide. (London: Hodder Arnold.) 3.	Lass, Roger. “Language periodization and the concept “middle”.” Placing middle english in context (2000): 7-41 4.	Strang, Barbara MH. A history of English. Routledge.